2023/07/26

Rapid loss of chromosomes refutes the theory of Evolution

The more speciation, the more information loss. Rapid loss of chromosomes points to recent Creation.


Adaptation to a changing environment is based on epigenetic mechanisms and factors. During these adaptive processes methylation patterns of genomes get altered. This will expose genomes to harmful mutations because of a tendency for methylated cytosines to turn to thymines in deamination caused by e.g. oxidative stress. Gradually, but quite rapidly, this will lead to decreased GC content in genomes. (G=Guanine, C=Cytosine) Organisms have very sophisticated built-in mechanisms by which they can maintain a necessary level of GC content in the cell. 

The most significant mechanism is so-called meiotic recombination, where the cell rearranges DNA from both parental cells for the embryo to have a necessary level of GC content. During this DNA reorganization process, information is typically lost because if recombination occurs in regions of the genome with different GC content, the offspring's GC content will likely be an intermediate value between the parental GC contents. It never exceeds either parent's GC content. This is why genetic entropy is a biological fact.

DNA rearrangement together with DNA repair mechanisms (DSB repair) often results in chromosomal reorganizations. Sometimes it can be observed as chromosome fusions. There is a clear indicator pointing out that chromosome fusions are tightly associated with the cell's ability to rearrange DNA to maintain a necessary level of GC content: after the chromosome fusion, there is a higher proportion of GC pairs in centromeres of the chromosome. Centromeres are located in the center of chromosomes due to energy efficiency reasons. So, now we have a very logical chain of modifications in the cell:

Methylated cytosines are prone to turn to thymines (C>T mutation bias) -->
Gradually the GC content is decreased in the cell -->
The cell tries to maintain a necessary level of GC content by reorganizing DNA in recombination during reproduction -->
The number of information elements (genes, mRNAs, transcripts, ncRNAs, etc.) will be reduced -->
The cell often uses chromosome fusions in these reorganization processes -->
The number of chromosomes decreases.

We have a lot of OBSERVED examples of this kind of information loss. These 'loss-of-information' chains can be verified by analyzing the phylogenetic trees of these animals. For example:

Canidaes:

Gray Wolf                  78 chromosomes lifespan 14-17 years
Bat-eared fox            72 chromosomes lifespan 13-15 years
Gray Fox                   66 chromosomes lifespan 6-8 years
Fennec Fox              64 chromosomes lifespan 8-10 years
Bengal Fox               60 chromosomes lifespan 6-8 years
Kit Fox                      50 chromosomes lifespan 5.5 years
Tibetan sand fox       36 chromosomes lifespan 6-10 years
Red Fox                    34 chromosomes lifespan 2-4 years (in 1975 it had 36-38 
chromosomes)

Equus (Horses):

Przewalski's horse     66 chromosomes
Domestic horse          64 chromosomes
Zebra                         44 chromosomes

Muntjacs:

Reeves Muntjac         46 chromosomes
Red Muntjac               6 
chromosomes (7 in males)

Mice:

Portuguese ancestor     40 
chromosomes
Madeira mouse             22-30 
chromosomes (after 500 years)

Giraffidae:

Okapi                        46 chromosomes
Giraffe                       30 
chromosomes

Summary and conclusions:
  • Cytosine to thymine mutation bias means that methylated cytosines are prone to turn to thymines. If you are interested in scientific explanation, please have a look at this study.
  • There is no repair mechanism for this kind of genetic error. Damages are irreversible.
  • Gradually but quite rapidly this universal phenomenon will lead to decreasing GC content of organisms' genomes. (G=Guanine, C=Cytosine).
  • The so-called CpG islands are extremely vulnerable to C>T mutation bias. Gradually CpG islands break down and this leads to the loss of gene regulatory areas (promoters, enhancers). There is no mechanism being able to rebuild them.
  • The cell can maintain a necessary level of GC content by rearranging DNA in recombination during reproduction.
  • Sometimes this genome reorganization results in fused chromosomes. This leads to a reduced number of chromosomes.
  • After chromosome fusion there is a higher GC content in the centromere of the chromosome.
  • This phenomenon is universal and is easily observed especially within diploid organisms such as mammals.
  • Rapid chromosome losses point to recent creation, not to millions of years of evolution.
  • There is no mechanism for evolution.