Evolution is a destructive process

Evolution Is Not a Creative Force but a Destructive Process – How Genomic Function and Mutation Load Refute Evolution

Introduction

According to classical evolutionary theory, random mutations and natural selection together form the engine that drives biological development from simple lifeforms to complex organisms. However, recent discoveries in genomics have begun to seriously challenge this framework. New data on the functional extent of the human genome and the relentless accumulation of mutations suggest that evolution, far from being a creative force, is actually a destructive, degenerative process.

This article explores the incompatibility of evolution with observed mutation rates, and the implications of the fact that most of the human genome is actively transcribed and functionally important. We conclude with a realistic estimate of how many generations remain before human reproduction becomes biologically impossible – all within the context of a biblical timeline that includes creation and the genetic bottleneck after the global Flood.

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Genomic Function: Transcription Across the Genome

Until the early 2000s, much of the human genome was thought to be "junk DNA" – inactive sequences that had accumulated through random evolutionary processes. This belief provided a convenient cushion for evolution, as mutations in "junk" regions were assumed to be harmless.

However, large-scale projects such as ENCODE (2012) and subsequent transcriptomic studies radically altered that view:

“More than 90% of the human genome is likely to be transcribed, yielding a complex network of overlapping transcripts that include tens of thousands of long RNAs with little or no protein-forming capacity.”
(Kung et al., 2013; ENCODE Consortium, 2012)

This means the human genome is not passive or mostly irrelevant, but highly active and full of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) that regulate gene expression, chromatin structure, development, stress responses, and more. These findings greatly expand the concept of functionality, calling into question the very assumptions evolution depends on.

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Mutation Load: The Genome Cannot Tolerate Full Functionality

Mutation load refers to the accumulation of deleterious mutations in a population over generations. Modern studies estimate that each human inherits about 60–100 new mutations per generation (Kondrashov, 2003). If only 5–10% of the genome is functional, most of these mutations may be harmless. But if 90–100% is functional, as current data indicate, most mutations will be harmful to some degree.

This reality has been explored in depth by John Sanford, a former genetics professor at Cornell University, in his book Genetic Entropy:

"Natural selection cannot effectively eliminate slightly harmful mutations, so they inevitably accumulate. This leads to degeneration, not evolution."

The critical point:

• Natural selection is powerless against the vast majority of slightly deleterious mutations (Kimura & Crow, 1970).

• If the genome is almost entirely functional, mutation burden rapidly exceeds what a population can endure.

Even leading evolutionary biologist Dan Graur admitted:

“If 80% of the genome is functional, then evolution is wrong.”
(Graur et al., 2013)

 

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The Accelerating Pace of Genetic Degeneration

Genetic decay does not proceed at a constant rate. Several factors make degeneration exponential over time:

1. Mutations in DNA repair genes reduce the cell’s ability to correct future errors.

2. Disruption of epigenetic control leads to faulty gene expression and cellular dysfunction.

3. Compounding of mutational load increases vulnerability in every generation.

As these faults accumulate, mutations begin to target essential systems such as fertility, immunity, and development, pushing the population closer to a crisis point.

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The Biblical Timeline and the Final Countdown

Let’s consider the human timeline from a young-earth creationist perspective:

• Creation occurred ~6000 years ago

• The global Flood occurred ~4500 years ago, resulting in a severe genetic bottleneck (only three sons of Noah contributed to the modern gene pool)

• Assuming ~25 years per generation, we are ~180 generations past the Flood.

Sanford’s genetic entropy model estimates that a human population cannot remain genetically viable for more than ~250–300 generations under current mutation rates, especially without the ability to remove slightly deleterious mutations.

➤ This implies that we are approaching a biological tipping point:

🔚 Humanity may reach critical degeneration within 70–120 more generations (i.e., in the next 500–1000 years), depending on environmental stressors and the use of artificial technologies (e.g., gene therapy, IVF) to maintain fertility.

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Conclusion: Evolution Is a Self-Defeating Process

In summary:

• The vast majority of the genome is functionally transcribed and regulated, not inert.

• Mutations accumulate relentlessly, and most are mildly harmful, especially when the genome is highly functional.

• Natural selection lacks the precision and efficiency to eliminate such mutations.

• Genetic degeneration is accelerating, especially as it damages systems responsible for maintaining genomic integrity.

Together, these facts refute the evolutionary model, which requires vast amounts of time, neutral DNA, and an unlimited tolerance for mutation. Instead, they strongly support the view that the human genome was originally created perfect, but is now decaying under the curse of sin, as described in Scripture.

Evolution, when viewed through the lens of modern genetics, is not a process of improvement, but a one-way path to biological extinction. And according to the data, that extinction is not millions of years away – it may be within the visible horizon of human history.

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References

• ENCODE Project Consortium. (2012). An integrated encyclopedia of DNA elements in the human genome. Nature, 489, 57–74.

• Kung, J. T. Y., Colognori, D., & Lee, J. T. (2013). Noncoding RNAs: Biological functions and applications. Epigenetics & Chromatin, 6(1).

• Sanford, J. (2014). Genetic Entropy & the Mystery of the Genome. FMS Publications.

• Kimura, M., & Crow, J. F. (1970). The number of alleles that can be maintained in a finite population. Genetics, 49(4), 725–738.

• Kondrashov, A. S. (2003). Direct estimates of human per nucleotide mutation rates at 20 loci causing Mendelian diseases. Human Mutation, 21(1), 12–27.

• Graur, D., Zheng, Y., Price, N., Azevedo, R. B. R., Zufall, R. A., & Elhaik, E. (2013). On the immortality of television sets: “Function” in the human genome according to the evolution-free gospel of ENCODE. Genome Biology and Evolution, 5(3), 578–590.

The Tailbone is not an evolutionary leftover

The Human Embryonic Tail – A Functional Structure, Not a Vestige

During human embryonic development, particularly between the 4th and 8th weeks, the embryo exhibits a tail-like protrusion extending beyond the developing lower limbs. Evolutionary biologists often interpret this structure as a “vestigial tail,” claiming it to be a non-functional remnant of our primate ancestry. However, this interpretation is not supported by what is now understood about human development and embryology.

Recent developmental biology shows that the so-called “embryonic tail” is not a leftover of evolution, but rather a necessary and functional part of normal vertebral development. It contains mesodermal tissue, developing somites, and part of the neural tube. These components contribute directly to the formation of the coccyx (tailbone) – the terminal end of the vertebral column – and are crucial in patterning and organizing the lower spine and associated tissues.

The transient elongation of this caudal structure during early development is simply a result of differential growth rates: the spinal column initially grows faster than other surrounding tissues, causing a temporary projection. As development proceeds, tissues catch up, and the “tail” is reabsorbed or integrated into the lower back as the coccygeal vertebrae. This is a precisely regulated process, involving genes that guide the segmentation and morphogenesis of the entire spine.

Moreover, studies have shown that disruption in this process can lead to congenital malformations of the spine, underscoring the importance of this temporary structure. Far from being useless, it plays a critical role in the timing, positioning, and alignment of the body’s axial structures.

In summary, the so-called embryonic tail is not a vestigial evolutionary leftover, but an integral part of human development, serving a defined biological purpose. Its presence is consistent with intelligent design and careful regulation, not with random mutation and evolutionary accidents.

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Main Functions and Roles of the Coccyx (Tailbone):

1. Attachment Point for Muscles, Tendons, and Ligaments
   The coccyx serves as an attachment site for several pelvic floor muscles and connective tissues, including:

• Gluteus maximus (buttock muscle)

• Muscles of the levator ani group (an essential part of the pelvic floor)

• Coccygeus muscle (supports pelvic organs and forms part of the pelvic floor)

These muscles help support pelvic organs such as the bladder, uterus, and rectum.

2. Balance and Postural Support
   The coccyx acts as a point of support when sitting or leaning backward, especially in semi-seated or crouched positions.

It helps distribute pressure and stabilize the body in a sitting position, working together with the ischial bones (sit bones).

3. Protective Structure for Nerves and Blood Vessels
   The coccyx forms a partial shield for certain neural structures (e.g., the ganglion impar, a solitary sympathetic ganglion at the coccyx).

This is also associated with sensory perception in the lower body.

Scientific Perspective:

Many researchers in anatomy and physiology consider the coccyx a functional structure, not a vestigial one.
For instance, Gray’s Anatomy (a classic medical reference) describes the coccyx as playing an important structural role as an anchor point for the pelvic floor muscles.

Summary:

The coccyx is not a useless remnant, but rather:

• A point of attachment for essential muscles and connective tissues

• A contributor to posture control and balance

• A supporter of internal pelvic organs

• A protector of neural and vascular structures

All of this points to a purposeful and functional structure — not a random product of evolution.

Conclusion:

The embryonic "tail" in humans is a developmentally functional and transient structure that contributes to proper spinal formation – not an evolutionary relic.

Natural Selection is an Imaginary Force

Mutations and Selection – Or Mechanisms?

1. Fish and Salinity: Adaptive Osmoregulation

Evolutionary view: Evolutionary biologists propose that fish populations adapting to varying salinity levels undergo random mutations affecting ion transporters and membrane proteins, with natural selection favoring variants better suited to saltwater or freshwater environments.

Epigenetic reality: Studies on species like the European sea bass and three-spined stickleback show that fish sense salinity changes via osmoreceptors, triggering intracellular signaling cascades. These cascades modify the methylation status of key osmoregulatory genes in gill tissues, altering expression without changing the DNA sequence. The adaptation is rapid, reversible, and even heritable over generations.

Mutations and Selection – Or Mechanisms?

2. Plant Drought Response: Molecular Memory of Stress

Evolutionary view: It is often claimed that drought-resistant plant variants arise from beneficial mutations in stress-related genes, which are selected over time through survival advantages in dry environments.

Epigenetic reality: Drought-exposed plants like Medicago ruthenica show significant changes in DNA methylation in promoter regions of drought-responsive genes. These epigenetic modifications activate abscisic acid (ABA) pathways and proline biosynthesis, enhancing drought tolerance. Remarkably, plants “remember” past droughts through stable methylation patterns that influence future responses.

Mutations and Selection – Or Mechanisms?

3. Insect Cold and Chemical Stress

Evolutionary view: Traditional theory posits that overwintering strategies or resistance to insecticides arise from beneficial mutations in regulatory or detoxification genes that are fixed through selective pressures.

Epigenetic reality: Insect larvae like those of gall flies adjust histone acetylation and methylation patterns in response to cold, directly influencing genes linked to metabolism and antifreeze protein production. Similarly, resistance to insecticides has been traced to reversible methylation and histone modifications that upregulate detoxifying enzymes—adaptations triggered by chemical exposure.

Mutations and Selection – Or Mechanisms?

4. Birds and Early-Life Stress

Evolutionary view: Differences in adult bird behavior and physiology under stress are attributed to mutations affecting neuroendocrine or metabolic regulation, supposedly filtered by natural selection.

Epigenetic reality: In large brood sizes, nestlings face nutritional stress, which leads to differential methylation in developmental genes. These modifications alter growth rates and stress hormone sensitivity. Epigenetic changes are environment-induced and can persist into adulthood, independent of any DNA sequence change.

Mutations and Selection – Or Mechanisms?

5. Mammals: Nutritional and Psychological Stress

Evolutionary view: Phenotypic diversity in mammals due to prenatal stress is often interpreted as a result of selected genetic variants affecting hormonal sensitivity or metabolism.

Epigenetic reality: Human and animal studies reveal that maternal malnutrition or trauma alters the epigenetic marks—especially methylation of genes like NR3C1 (glucocorticoid receptor). These changes influence the offspring’s stress response, metabolic rates, and even behavior, often into adulthood and beyond.

Mutations and Selection – Or Mechanisms?

6. Microbes and Antibiotic Resistance

Evolutionary view: The standard narrative holds that spontaneous genetic mutations grant antibiotic resistance to bacteria, and selection preserves these rare mutants in treated populations.

Epigenetic reality: Evidence shows that bacteria can upregulate resistance genes via histone-like protein modifications and DNA methylation upon exposure to antibiotics. This resistance can be induced without mutational change and transmitted to daughter cells epigenetically.

Mutations and Selection – Or Mechanisms?

7. Human High-Altitude Adaptation

Evolutionary view: It is theorized that high-altitude human populations (e.g., Tibetans) acquired mutations in genes regulating hemoglobin or oxygen use, with selection acting over millennia.

Epigenetic reality: Research shows that hypoxia exposure rapidly alters DNA methylation and histone modifications in genes involved in red blood cell production and mitochondrial function. Many of these changes occur within a single generation and can be partially inherited.

Mutations and Selection – Or Mechanisms?

8. Chameleon Color Change

Evolutionary view: Color adaptation in chameleons is explained as a trait refined by natural selection acting on genetic variants influencing chromatophore function.

Epigenetic reality: Color change is regulated by neural and hormonal signals in real-time, triggering intracellular pathways that modify the arrangement of nanocrystals in iridophores. These physiological adaptations are based on signal-response systems, not genetic mutation.

Mutations and Selection – Or Mechanisms?

9. Insect Diapause Timing

Evolutionary view: Seasonal dormancy timing in insects is attributed to inherited genetic changes in developmental regulators, shaped by climate-driven selection.

Epigenetic reality: Diapause is controlled by photoperiod-sensitive receptors that activate hormonal pathways. These signals modify chromatin state and gene expression, enabling flexible developmental pauses in response to environmental cues—an epigenetic programming event.

Mutations and Selection – Or Mechanisms?

10. Social Insects and Role Differentiation

Evolutionary view: Castes in bees and ants are thought to result from selection on gene regulatory mutations driving queen versus worker development.

Epigenetic reality: Nutritional and social cues are sensed and translated into changes in DNA methylation and histone acetylation, determining caste fate. Identical genomes produce distinct phenotypes based solely on epigenetic signaling.

Mutations and Selection – Or Mechanisms?

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Conclusion: Designed for Adaptive Intelligence

The examples above challenge the dominant theory that adaptive traits arise through random mutations and are filtered by natural selection. Instead, they reveal that organisms possess sophisticated, built-in epigenetic mechanisms capable of detecting environmental changes, communicating information across cellular systems, and adjusting gene expression accordingly. These changes often persist across generations without altering the DNA sequence—suggesting that life was designed with the foresight and complexity needed to adapt intelligently to dynamic environments.

Mutations and Selection – Or Mechanisms? The evidence speaks for itself.

Evidence points to a recent Ice Age

Geological Evidence for a Recent Ice Age Consistent with the Biblical Flood Model

Abstract:

Geological and environmental observations across northern Europe, particularly in Finland, challenge the standard evolutionary timescale of an Ice Age that ended over 10,000 years ago. This article presents evidence that supports a more recent Ice Age, occurring only a few thousand years ago, likely as a postdiluvian climatic consequence of the Genesis Flood. Key observations include the thin humus layers on glacial landforms, preservation of glacial ice in kettle holes, sharp geomorphological features, and the rapid development of peat bogs. These data are interpreted within a young-earth creationist framework, offering a coherent alternative to the mainstream uniformitarian model.

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1. Introduction

The conventional geologic model places the end of the last Ice Age (the Weichselian glaciation in Europe) around 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. In contrast, the young-earth creationist model interprets the Ice Age as a recent event, occurring shortly after the global cataclysm described in Genesis. This paper examines multiple lines of evidence that suggest the Ice Age occurred only a few thousand years ago and supports the hypothesis that it was a direct consequence of post-flood climatic dynamics.

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2. Thin Humus Layers on Glacial Formations

Many glacial landforms such as eskers, drumlins, and moraines in Finland are covered by only 5–15 cm of humus. If soil accumulation rates are conservatively estimated at 1 cm per 100 years, one would expect at least 1 meter of soil in 10,000 years. The observed thinness of soil layers is more consistent with a post-glacial exposure of only a few thousand years, supporting a recent deglaciation.

Many glacial landforms such as eskers, drumlins, and moraines in Finland are covered by only 5–15 cm of humus.

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3. Preservation of Glacial Ice in Kettle Holes

Kettle holes (Finnish: supat) are depressions formed by the melting of buried glacial ice. In rare but well-documented cases, remnants of glacial ice or massive ice blocks have been found in deep kettle holes even in modern times. The continued presence of such ice is difficult to reconcile with an age of over 10,000 years, especially given natural geothermal heat and seasonal thawing. This supports the idea that the ice is only a few thousand years old.

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4. Fresh Geomorphological Features

Steep and sharply defined ridges and slopes are still found in glacial formations such as eskers and moraines. In a uniformitarian model, frost weathering, erosion, and biological activity over 10,000+ years should have softened and rounded these features. Their preservation indicates minimal post-glacial erosion, suggesting a recent origin.

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5. Rapid Recolonization and Species Distribution

Certain alpine and arctic plant species are found on isolated eskers far to the south of their typical habitats. Their presence is often interpreted as relic populations from the Ice Age. However, their survival and establishment in such locations implies a rapid post-glacial migration, consistent with a shorter timescale.

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6. Peat Bog Development

Radiocarbon data, even with its limitations, often dates the formation of major Finnish peat bogs to within the last 3,000 to 5,000 years. If deglaciation occurred 12,000 years ago, bog development would be expected to have begun much earlier. The relatively recent onset of peat accumulation supports a more recent post-glacial environment.

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7. Cultural Memories of an Icy Past

Some indigenous and ancient cultures contain legends and oral histories describing extreme cold, ice, or rapid environmental changes. These may represent preserved cultural memory of a recent Ice Age. Such preservation would be unlikely if the Ice Age ended over 400 generations ago.

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8. The Flood–Ice Age Model

Creationist researchers such as Michael Oard have proposed a model in which the Ice Age followed the Genesis Flood. The Flood would have heated the oceans via widespread volcanic activity and tectonic movements, increasing evaporation and precipitation. Warmer oceans combined with cool post-Flood summers (due to aerosols and volcanic dust) would lead to heavy snowfall and glacier formation. This Ice Age could have lasted several centuries and then ended rapidly, explaining the observed features without requiring tens of thousands of years.

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9. Conclusion

Multiple geological and environmental observations from northern regions, particularly in Finland, are more readily explained by a recent, short Ice Age consistent with a biblical Flood chronology. The thin humus layers, preservation of glacial ice, fresh topographical features, rapid ecological changes, and peat formation patterns all point to a deglaciation that occurred only a few thousand years ago. This supports the Biblical timeline and challenges the uniformitarian assumptions of mainstream geoscience.

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References:

• Oard, M. J. (2004). Frozen in Time. Master Books.
• Walker, T. (1994). The Ice Age: Only the Bible explains it. Creation, 16(2), 12–14.
• Sarfati, J. (2010). The Genesis Account: A theological, historical, and scientific commentary on Genesis 1–11. Creation Book Publishers.
• Answers in Genesis. (n.d.). Ice Age after the Flood. https://answersingenesis.org/environmental-science/ice-age/
• Creation Ministries International. (n.d.). https://creation.com/

Series: Irreducible Complexity in Nature, Part 2

The Blood Clotting Cascade – Precision or Perish

(Series: Irreducible Complexity in Nature, Part 2)

Introduction: A Delicate Balance

Every time you get a paper cut or a scraped knee, a highly coordinated system springs into action—within seconds. The blood clotting cascade (coagulation system) halts bleeding by forming a clot, preventing blood loss and sealing the wound. But just as important, this system must also not activate unnecessarily, or it could cause deadly clots inside blood vessels (thrombosis).

This system’s speed, precision, and control are astonishing. But could it have evolved step-by-step, as Darwinian theory claims? Or is it another clear example of an irreducibly complex system that could not function if even one part were missing?

The Evolutionary Story

Evolutionary biologists argue that the clotting system evolved gradually over millions of years. They suggest that simpler versions of the system are found in jawless vertebrates (like lampreys) and that gene duplication events led to additional clotting factors in mammals.

Proposed evolutionary sequence:

1. Basic cell aggregation and clotting in invertebrates (e.g., hemocytes in arthropods)
2. Fibrinogen-like molecules appear in early chordates
3. Development of a primitive thrombin-fibrinogen interaction
4. Gene duplications produce additional clotting factors (e.g., Factors VII, IX, X)
5. Complex cascades evolve in mammals through stepwise refinements

This hypothesis assumes that partial systems offered survival advantages and were selected for over time.

The Scientific Rebuttal: All or Nothing

The problem with this story is that the blood clotting system is a classic example of an irreducibly complex biochemical cascade. It involves a precise sequence of over a dozen proteins (clotting factors), each activating the next in a tightly regulated chain reaction.

If any critical component is missing or misregulated, the system fails catastrophically. Either the organism bleeds to death, or it dies from internal clots.

1. A Cascade With No Middle Ground

Clotting factors like Factor X, Factor V, prothrombin, and fibrinogen must all work together. Remove one link from the chain, and the entire clotting process collapses.

For example, in humans:

• A deficiency of Factor VIII results in hemophilia A, a life-threatening bleeding disorder.
• Excessive thrombin activity causes disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), leading to widespread clotting and organ failure.

There is no room for error or gradualism. The cascade must be complete, controlled, and synchronized from the beginning.

2. Activation by Inhibition?

Many clotting factors circulate in an inactive form (zymogens) and are activated only when needed. But this requires regulatory proteins like antithrombin and protein C to prevent spontaneous clotting.

This adds another layer of irreducible complexity: not only must the clotting machinery exist, but so must the inhibitors and feedback loops.

3. Fibrinogen Without Thrombin?

Fibrinogen is the precursor to fibrin, the protein mesh that stabilizes a clot. But fibrinogen is useless without thrombin to convert it—and thrombin is dangerous without the cascade to regulate it.

So which came first? Fibrinogen? Thrombin? Regulators? All must be present simultaneously and correctly assembled.

Evolutionary Gaps and Circular Reasoning

Attempts to explain this system through stepwise evolution typically rely on circular logic: "Clotting factor X must have evolved because it's found in all mammals, and mammals have it because it evolved."

Moreover, so-called "simpler" systems in fish or amphibians are not necessarily precursors—they may be streamlined versions of the same design, optimized for different metabolic rates or environments.

There is no living organism with a functioning partial clotting system that illustrates a viable evolutionary intermediate.

Michael Behe’s Classic Case

In his groundbreaking book Darwin’s Black Box, biochemist Dr. Michael Behe highlighted the clotting cascade as one of the strongest examples of irreducible complexity. He argued that the system cannot evolve in a Darwinian manner because:

• The system has no useful function until the entire sequence is in place.
• Partial systems would be lethal liabilities.
• Random mutations cannot assemble such a precise and regulated mechanism.

To date, no evolutionary model has successfully demonstrated a plausible pathway for the stepwise development of this system.

Conclusion: Engineered for Life

The blood clotting cascade shows every sign of intentional engineering: speed, precision, control, and redundancy. It is not the product of blind mutation and selection. It is an all-or-nothing system that defies the slow, gradualism of Darwinian evolution.

It is far more reasonable to conclude that it was intelligently designed by a Creator who understood the critical balance between clotting and bleeding, and who equipped living beings with everything needed for life—and for healing.

As Scripture declares:
“For the life of the flesh is in the blood.” (Leviticus 17:11)

Sources and References

• Behe, M. J. (1996). Darwin’s Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution. Free Press.
• Roberts, H. R., & Hoffman, M. (2004). Molecular biology of the coagulation factors. Thrombosis and Haemostasis.
• Palta, S., Saroa, R., & Palta, A. (2014). Overview of the coagulation system. Indian Journal of Anaesthesia.
• Sarfati, J. (2001). Refuting Evolution 2. Creation Book Publishers.
• Rodriguez-Marin, J., et al. (2020). Evolution of vertebrate coagulation. Blood Reviews.

Series: Irreducible Complexity in Nature, Part 1

The Circulatory System – No Life Without All the Parts

(Series: Irreducible Complexity in Nature, Part 1)

Introduction: The River of Life

The human circulatory system is an intricately coordinated network of the heart, blood vessels, and blood itself. It transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and immune cells to every part of the body. Without it, no cell could survive for more than a few minutes.

But could such a system have gradually emerged through small, beneficial mutations—as Darwinian evolution suggests? Or is it an all-or-nothing system, demonstrating irreducible complexity that defies step-by-step assembly?

What Evolutionary Biologists Propose

Mainstream evolutionary theory suggests that the circulatory system evolved gradually, starting with simple diffusion in single-celled organisms. As multicellularity developed, primitive animals are believed to have evolved open circulatory systems, where blood or hemolymph bathes the organs directly. Over time, more efficient closed circulatory systems allegedly emerged in vertebrates, with a heart and enclosed blood vessels improving oxygen delivery.

Proposed sequence:

1. Diffusion-based exchange in simple multicellular organisms
2. Open circulatory systems in early invertebrates
3. Single-loop circulation in fish
4. Double-loop circulation in amphibians and reptiles
5. Four-chambered heart in birds and mammals

This model assumes that each transitional step provided a survival advantage and was naturally selected.

The Fatal Problem: No Function Until Everything Is Present

This idea may sound plausible at first, but it breaks down under scientific scrutiny.

The mature circulatory system is an irreducibly complex structure. The heart, blood, and vessels are interdependent. Remove any one component, and the system ceases to function. There is no benefit in having just vessels without a pump. There’s no advantage to pumping fluid if it has no oxygen-carrying cells. And there’s no reason to evolve hemoglobin unless there’s a system to circulate it to tissues.

Evolutionary theory must explain not just anatomical changes, but how partial systems could function and provide a survival benefit. If intermediate stages are non-functional or harmful, natural selection cannot favor them.

1. The Heart Without Vessels?

A muscle contracting in the body cavity is useless unless it pumps fluid through defined channels. A heart without a vascular network provides no benefit—and wastes energy.

2. Blood Without Hemoglobin?

Some simple organisms use plasma for oxygen transport, but this is insufficient for complex, active animals. Hemoglobin is a large, complex protein that would be harmful if expressed in the wrong context.

3. Vessels Without a Pump?

A network of tubes is meaningless without a pressure source. Passive diffusion is too slow for large organisms. Capillaries, arteries, and veins must all be present and functionally organized.

4. Regulatory Systems?

Blood pressure, heart rate, and vascular tone require hormonal and neural control. The baroreceptor reflex and autonomic regulation are finely tuned. A mismatch between structure and regulation is life-threatening.

The Embryological Challenge

Even more stunning is the fact that the circulatory system doesn’t just work—it assembles itself correctly in the womb. Fetal circulation differs drastically from adult circulation. Specialized bypasses (foramen ovale, ductus arteriosus, etc.) are only needed before birth, when the lungs are non-functional. These close shortly after birth. If the timing is off, the baby can die from hypoxia or circulatory failure.

How could such temporary, highly coordinated structures arise gradually? Evolution has no foresight. Yet embryology exhibits foresight everywhere.

Open vs. Closed Circulation – Not a Viable Path

Proponents of stepwise evolution often cite open circulatory systems in insects as ancestral. But there’s a problem: these are different designs, not transitional forms. The jump from an open to a closed system would require:

• New vascular architecture
• A sealed endothelium
• New control mechanisms for flow and pressure
• A reliable heart-lung link for oxygen exchange

There is no known transitional organism with a partially closed, partially open system that works.

Conclusion: This System Was Designed

The circulatory system is a textbook case of irreducible complexity. It cannot function unless all its critical parts are present at the same time and properly integrated. Darwinian evolution, which works by accumulating small, functional changes, cannot build a system where function only appears at the end.

A better explanation is that the system was intelligently designed and created from the beginning, fully functional, purposeful, and optimized for life. Not by chance, but by a Creator who understood every detail.

As the psalmist said:
“I praise You, for I am fearfully and wonderfully made.” (Psalm 139:14)

Sources and References

• Behe, M. J. (1996). Darwin’s Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution.
• Sarfati, J. (2001). Refuting Evolution 2. Creation Book Publishers.
• Moore, K. L., Persaud, T. V. N., & Torchia, M. G. (2015). The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology.
• Hill, R. W., Wyse, G. A., & Anderson, M. (2016). Animal Physiology.
• Guyenet, G. P., & Bayliss, D. A. (2015). Neural Control of Blood Pressure. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine, 5(9): a032243.

Postmortem Submersion in Saltwater and Its Impact on Radiocarbon Dating: A Biblical Perspective

Abstract

Radiocarbon (C-14) dating is a widely used method for estimating the age of organic remains. However, multiple studies and case reports have revealed serious anomalies in C-14 results, particularly when samples have undergone postmortem exposure to aquatic environments. This paper examines the influence of saltwater immersion on the reliability of radiocarbon dating, especially in light of a global flood model. We discuss mechanisms such as carbon exchange, microbial activity, and contamination by C-14-deficient carbon, and explore how these processes could significantly alter the apparent age of samples. The implications for creationist models of Earth's history, including a recent global flood, are considered.

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1. Introduction

Radiocarbon dating assumes that the C-14 content of an organism at death reflects the atmospheric C-14/C-12 ratio at that time, and that subsequent decay occurs in a closed system. However, these assumptions are often violated in natural settings. One significant factor that can compromise C-14 integrity is prolonged exposure to water—especially saltwater—after death.

From a biblical creationist perspective, this issue takes on greater relevance. If many organisms were rapidly buried or submerged during a global flood event, as described in Genesis, postmortem aquatic exposure may have played a crucial role in altering the C-14 content of fossils. This paper reviews known anomalies in radiocarbon results and examines how saltwater submersion can lead to significant deviations in apparent sample age.

The Burgess Shale marine fossils

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2. Mechanisms of C-14 Alteration Due to Saltwater Exposure

2.1 Carbon Exchange and Reservoir Effects

In marine environments, dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) is often depleted in C-14 compared to the atmosphere. Organisms submerged in such water may undergo postmortem carbon exchange. This is particularly true for porous materials such as bones, shells, or degraded tissues. Diffusion of old carbon into the sample matrix can result in a falsely increased apparent age. This is known as the marine reservoir effect, and it can cause discrepancies of hundreds to thousands of years—even in living organisms.

2.2 Microbial Contamination

Marine environments host diverse microbial communities. After death, decomposing organisms are rapidly colonized by bacteria that may incorporate carbon from the surrounding environment, especially from old, C-14-deficient carbon sources. These microbes can become physically embedded in the tissue matrix and may not be fully removed during pretreatment procedures, especially if samples are poorly preserved. This microbial reworking may contribute significantly to false radiocarbon ages.

2.3 Structural Recrystallization and Diagenesis

Bones and shells submerged in saltwater are subject to mineral exchange and recrystallization. This process can introduce exogenous carbon from surrounding sediments or seawater bicarbonates. The longer the submersion, the greater the risk that the original biogenic carbon will be replaced or contaminated by non-contemporaneous material, especially in conditions favoring chemical alteration (e.g., fluctuating pH, temperature, or salinity).

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3. Time-Dependent Impact: How Long Is “Long Enough”?

The degree of alteration depends on multiple factors, including temperature, water chemistry, and tissue type. However, published data and case studies suggest the following general guidelines:

Time in Saltwater	Likely C-14 Impact
< 1 month	Minor or negligible in intact tissues
1–12 months	Moderate; microbial and ionic exchange begins to alter surface carbon
1–5 years	Significant; potential for 100s to 1000s of years apparent age increase
5–50 years	High contamination risk; almost certainly distorted radiocarbon results

These values are approximate, but they demonstrate that even submersion for less than a year may begin to compromise radiocarbon reliability, especially in marine environments rich in old carbon.

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4. Documented Radiocarbon Anomalies Related to Water Exposure

4.1 Living Mollusks with Ancient Radiocarbon Ages

Keith and Anderson (1963) reported that living mollusks from marine environments showed apparent radiocarbon ages of up to 2,300 years, due to incorporation of C-14-deficient carbon from seawater. This demonstrates that even biologically active, living systems can appear ancient under the C-14 method if the carbon source is anomalous.

4.2 Fresh Fish and Shellfish Yielding Ancient Ages

Various studies have reported that freshly caught fish and modern marine shellfish can return C-14 ages ranging from several hundred to over 5,000 years. These errors are largely attributable to reservoir effects and environmental carbon sources.

4.3 Soft Tissue in Fossils Yielding Radiocarbon Dates

Creationist researchers have reported C-14 dates of 20,000 to 40,000 years in dinosaur bones, which should be "C-14 dead" by conventional standards (ICR, RATE project). While mainstream science often attributes this to contamination, these results are consistent with postmortem contamination through groundwater or flood-related aqueous exposure in a young Earth framework.

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5. Implications for Creationist Chronology

From a young-earth creationist viewpoint, the global flood described in Genesis would have involved the submersion of most terrestrial life in turbulent, mineral-rich waters. Under these conditions:

• Carbon contamination would be widespread.
• Reservoir effects could universally bias C-14 ages upward.
• Soft tissues or collagen preserved in bones could acquire exogenous carbon, yielding artificially old results.

This provides a viable explanation for the presence of measurable C-14 in fossils thought to be millions of years old and undermines the assumption that C-14 decay always reflects elapsed time since death in a closed system.

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6. Conclusion

Radiocarbon dating is fundamentally sensitive to environmental variables. Postmortem submersion in saltwater can cause C-14 depletion through multiple mechanisms—carbon exchange, microbial contamination, and structural alteration. These effects become more pronounced with time and are consistent with a model in which organisms perished and were rapidly buried during a recent, global flood. Thus, radiocarbon dates, especially those older than several thousand years, should be interpreted with caution, particularly when considering samples that may have been exposed to aqueous environments.

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References

• Keith, M. L., & Anderson, G. M. (1963). Radiocarbon dating: fictitious results with mollusk shells. Science, 141, 634–637.
• ICR (2005). Radioisotopes and the Age of the Earth, Vol. II (RATE Project). Institute for Creation Research.
• Deevey, E. S., Gross, M. S., Hutchinson, G. E., & Kraybill, H. R. (1954). The natural C14 contents of materials from hard-water lakes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 40(5), 285–288.
• Snelling, A. A. (2008). Radiocarbon in dinosaur bones: international conference results. Answers Research Journal, 1, 123–144.

 

Genetic entropy behind parasitism

Genetic Entropy as a Driving Force Behind Parasitism: Evidence from Parasitic Organisms

Abstract: Parasitism—the biological phenomenon where one organism benefits at the expense of another—is traditionally interpreted as a product of evolutionary adaptation. However, an alternative framework based on the concept of genetic entropy posits that parasitism arises not through innovation but through degeneration. Genetic entropy refers to the gradual loss of genetic information due to the accumulation of harmful mutations. Increasing evidence suggests that many parasitic organisms exhibit reduced genomes, dysfunctional metabolic pathways, and lost biosynthetic capabilities. These deficiencies point toward a historical degradation of genetic systems rather than forward adaptation. This article explores parasitism in this light, analyzing multiple examples of parasites whose dependency on hosts is best explained by loss of function and mutational decay.

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Introduction

Parasitism, although often framed within evolutionary narratives as a specialized adaptation, may instead represent a downstream consequence of genetic loss. Many parasitic organisms lack essential genes that their free-living counterparts possess. In the light of genetic entropy, parasitism is viewed as a degenerative state—one in which organisms become increasingly dependent on their hosts due to mutational damage and the erosion of genomic information.

Furthermore, many parasitic species originate from organisms once engaged in mutualistic or commensal symbiosis. The transition from cooperation to exploitation reflects a loss of autonomy, consistent with irreversible informational decay. This degeneration is often traceable to specific genetic alterations, such as C→T transitions caused by methylated cytosines (5mC → T), which accumulate over generations.

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Case Studies of Parasitic Organisms and Genetic Entropy

1. Leishmania donovani

Leishmania donovani, the causative agent of visceral leishmaniasis, has lost several cell-cycle regulatory genes, including NIMA-related kinases. These kinases are critical for proper mitotic progression, and their loss suggests increasing dependence on the intracellular host environment to complete replication. Studies also show compensatory overexpression of neighboring genes, which may reflect attempts to offset the degradation of essential systems.

2. Cryptosporidium parvum

This protozoan parasite has lost multiple genes required for de novo nucleotide synthesis, amino acid production, and fatty acid metabolism. As a result, it relies almost entirely on the host cell for survival. Comparative genomics shows it retains only the most essential functions for invasion and replication, pointing to significant reductive devolution. The organism’s plastid genome has also degenerated, a sign of further informational loss.

A close-up of a dead ant with the zombifying fungus growing from its head. (Image credit: PLoS ONE)

3. Brugia malayi

A nematode parasite causing lymphatic filariasis, Brugia malayi has a drastically reduced genome compared to free-living nematodes like Caenorhabditis elegans. Whole genome analyses reveal gene losses in sensory perception, nervous system development, and digestion. These deficits make B. malayi dependent on host tissues and fluids, which provide nutrients it can no longer acquire or synthesize independently.

4. Strongyloides papillosus

While Strongyloides papillosus has expanded certain gene families (e.g., Astacin proteases) to assist with host tissue penetration, it has lost numerous genes related to environmental sensing and free-living survival. This balance of adaptation and degradation suggests a clear trend: a once-independent organism is becoming increasingly specialized and dependent through functional loss.

5. Ehrlichia spp.

These obligate intracellular bacteria have undergone massive genomic reduction, with the loss of many metabolic genes. Their genomes show numerous pseudogenes and fragmented pathways. Ehrlichia species no longer synthesize many amino acids and cofactors, depending instead on host-derived nutrients. This pattern is consistent with genome decay facilitated by small population sizes and high mutational loads.

6. Mycobacterium leprae

Perhaps the most striking example of genetic entropy, Mycobacterium leprae has lost nearly half of its ancestral genome. Over 1,100 pseudogenes litter its DNA, many of them representing broken remnants of once-functional metabolic and repair genes. This organism cannot survive outside of host cells and shows almost no capacity for genetic innovation—only degradation.

7. Cuscuta spp. (Dodder plants)

These parasitic plants have lost nearly all photosynthesis-related genes, including the entire suite of ndh genes required for electron transport. Additionally, genes involved in plastid transcription and splicing (e.g., rpo, matK) are missing or pseudogenized. Cuscuta’s life cycle is entirely dependent on extracting nutrients from host plants, making it a botanical model of degeneration-by-dependence.

8. Microsporidia

Microsporidia represent one of the most extreme examples of eukaryotic genome reduction. Their mitochondria have regressed into mitosomes—organelles incapable of generating ATP. Microsporidia genomes are among the smallest of all eukaryotes and lack critical genes for amino acid synthesis, DNA repair, and lipid metabolism. These changes are consistent with irreversible genetic decay.

9. Ehrlichia canis

A specific species within the Ehrlichia genus, E. canis causes canine ehrlichiosis. Its genome is characterized by high mutation rates and low recombination, conditions ideal for genetic entropy. It lacks genes for several biosynthetic pathways and cannot survive outside of host white blood cells. These features make it a textbook case of degenerative parasitism.

10. Plasmodium falciparum

The malaria-causing Plasmodium falciparum lacks the classical non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) pathway for repairing double-strand breaks. Its reliance on homologous recombination leads to high mutation rates and antigenic variation. While this helps evade host immunity, it also reflects a loss of repair precision and genomic stability. Such degeneration is not a mark of adaptive evolution but of informational breakdown.

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Symbiosis and the Path to Parasitism

Many parasitic organisms are believed to have originated from mutualistic or commensal relationships. In such early interactions, one organism may have relied on another for specific nutrients or protection. However, as mutations accumulate and critical biosynthetic genes are lost, this dependence deepens until the organism becomes a parasite. Symbiosis, therefore, may serve as a stepping-stone toward parasitism under the influence of genetic entropy.

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Theological Perspective: The Curse of Creation

From a Biblical worldview, these observations resonate strongly with the narrative of Genesis. According to the Bible, God created all life “very good” (Genesis 1:31). Parasitism, disease, and decay were not part of the original creation but are consequences of the Fall—when sin entered the world through Adam’s disobedience (Genesis 3). As part of the curse, “the whole creation groans and suffers” (Romans 8:22). Genetic entropy can thus be understood as one of the mechanisms by which this curse manifests biologically. The increasing prevalence of harmful mutations, loss of function, and degenerative change across life forms reflects a world in decline, not progress. Parasitism stands as a biological witness to the corruption of what was once a perfectly functional and harmonious creation.

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Conclusion

In light of the examples provided, parasitism is best interpreted not as a forward evolutionary innovation but as a degenerative outcome driven by genetic entropy. Across the biological spectrum, parasitic organisms exhibit:

• Loss of genes essential for metabolism, replication, and repair

• High mutation rates (genetic errors) and genomic instability

• Dependency on host organisms for survival

These patterns are consistent with information decay rather than complexity gain. When evaluated through the lens of genetic entropy—and in harmony with the Biblical understanding of a cursed creation—the rise of parasitism becomes a compelling example of how life deteriorates over time when deprived of original informational integrity.

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References

1. Ghedin, E., et al. (2007). “Draft genome of the filarial nematode Brugia malayi.” Science, 317(5845), 1756–1760.

2. Keeling, P.J., & Slamovits, C.H. (2005). “Causes and effects of nuclear genome reduction.” Current Opinion in Genetics & Development, 15(6), 601–608.

3. Nakjang, S., et al. (2013). “Reduction and expansion in microsporidian genome evolution: new insights from comparative genomics.” Genome Biology and Evolution, 5(12), 2285–2303.

4. Cole, S.T., et al. (2001). “Massive gene decay in the leprosy bacillus.” Nature, 409(6823), 1007–1011.

5. McCutchan, T.F., et al. (1996). “Comparison of genome organization and gene content between Plasmodium falciparum and other apicomplexan parasites.” Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 79(1), 1–12.

6. Vogel, A., et al. (2018). “Footprints of parasitism in the genome of the parasitic flowering plant Cuscuta campestris.” Nature Communications, 9, 2515.

7. Dunning Hotopp, J.C., et al. (2006). “Widespread lateral gene transfer from intracellular bacteria to multicellular eukaryotes.” Science, 317(5845), 1753–1756.

8. Kissinger, J.C., & DeBarry, J. (2011). “Genome cartography: charting the apicomplexan genome.” Trends in Parasitology, 27(8), 345–354.

9. Lukeš, J., et al. (2002). “Mitochondrial genome and proteome of trypanosomatids: current knowledge and new insights.” Trends in Parasitology, 18(10), 496–502.

10. Genesis 1–3; Romans 8:20–22 (Biblical texts).
    
    

For Further Studies

The following parasitic organisms exemplify how genetic information loss—through mutations, gene deletions, and genome rearrangements—has led to increased reliance on host organisms:

1. Nanoarchaeum equitans
   This archaeal parasite possesses one of the smallest known genomes (~491 kb) and lacks genes for essential metabolic pathways, including lipid, amino acid, and nucleotide synthesis. Its survival depends entirely on its host, Ignicoccus hospitalis, from which it derives necessary metabolites.

2. Carsonella ruddii
   An endosymbiont of psyllid insects, Carsonella ruddii has a highly reduced genome (~160 kb) with only 182 protein-coding genes. It lacks many genes essential for independent life, indicating a transition towards a parasitic lifestyle driven by genome reduction.

3. Encephalitozoon cuniculi
   A microsporidian parasite with a compact genome (~2.9 Mb), E. cuniculi has lost numerous genes involved in metabolic processes and DNA repair. Its ribosomes have adapted structurally to compensate for the loss of ribosomal RNA segments and proteins, showcasing evolutionary responses to genome decay.

4. Trichomonas vaginalis
   This protozoan parasite exhibits a large genome (~160 Mb) with a significant number of pseudogenes and long non-coding RNAs. The presence of these non-functional elements suggests ongoing genome degradation and a reliance on host-derived factors for survival.

5. Candidatus Hodgkinia cicadicola
   An endosymbiont of cicadas, Hodgkinia has an extremely reduced genome (~144 kb) and exists as multiple distinct lineages within a single host. Each lineage complements the others' gene losses, collectively maintaining essential functions—a phenomenon resulting from extensive genome fragmentation and reduction.

6. Tremblaya princeps
   Found within mealybugs, Tremblaya princeps has one of the smallest known bacterial genomes (~139 kb) and lacks many genes necessary for independent life. It exists in a nested symbiosis, housing another bacterium within itself, highlighting extreme genome reduction and dependency.

7. Nasuia deltocephalinicola
   This bacterial endosymbiont of leafhoppers has a minimal genome (~112 kb) with only 137 protein-coding genes. It lacks genes for ATP synthesis and many other essential functions, relying entirely on its host and co-symbionts for survival.

8. Zinderia insecticola
   An endosymbiont of spittlebugs, Zinderia possesses a reduced genome (~208 kb) and lacks many genes for amino acid biosynthesis. Its survival depends on a complementary relationship with another symbiont, illustrating genome reduction and interdependence.

9. Sulcia muelleri
   This ancient symbiont of sap-feeding insects has a reduced genome (~190 kb) and provides essential amino acids to its host. Its genome shows signs of long-term stability despite reduction, indicating a mutualistic relationship that arose from genome decay.

10. Paulinella chromatophora
    An amoeba that acquired a photosynthetic endosymbiont, Paulinella's chromatophore genome has undergone significant reduction, losing many genes and transferring others to the host nucleus. This process reflects the early stages of organelle formation driven by genome reduction.