Scientists have not been able to create life from scratch

Creating a living being from scratch is extremely difficult

And it seems to be an impossible task for scientists

https://www.growbyginkgo.com/2023/02/23/life-from-scratch/

Excerpt: "Creating a living being from scratch is difficult. A cell is home to a complex system where every organelle must work together to sustain life. To engineer artificial life in a test tube, scientists will have to engineer lots of different functionalities together that might not exist in nature along with the ability for the cell to sustain basic life functions. “One of the most underlying and necessary reactions that have to occur would be to get from DNA to RNA to proteins,” says Yewdall. “In order to do this, you need a compatible system” — one where all the organelles and other cellular parts work together to sustain cellular function such as making proteins, energy, and transporting nutrients."

My comment: The article highlights the extreme complexity involved in creating life from scratch, particularly when attempting to engineer a functional cell in a laboratory setting. This complexity offers significant insights into why life could not arise through random mutations and natural selection alone, as evolutionary theory often suggests.

First, the text emphasizes how essential it is for all cellular components to work in harmony to sustain life. Every organelle, every protein, and every biochemical process must be highly coordinated. This intricate system is not merely a collection of individual parts randomly thrown together; it is a finely tuned network, where a failure in one part often results in the collapse of the entire system. This is consistent with the idea that life is designed and purposefully engineered, rather than the result of random processes.

One key point mentioned is the necessity of a "compatible system" where organelles and cellular machinery cooperate to perform life-sustaining functions. In the context of evolution, it is hard to imagine how such a system could gradually evolve since each part would need to be functional from the beginning for life to exist. The DNA-RNA-protein relationship — the central dogma of molecular biology — must already be fully operational for a cell to survive. Random mutations could not build up such an interdependent system incrementally because each step would require a fully functioning system to even begin working.

The difficulty scientists face in synthesizing life under controlled conditions further challenges the idea that life could arise spontaneously through undirected processes in nature. If highly educated and well-resourced researchers struggle to replicate life in ideal laboratory environments, it raises significant doubts about the likelihood of life emerging without intelligent direction. The step-by-step failure to produce life in the lab illustrates that far more than chance and time are needed to explain the origin of life.

Ultimately, these findings suggest that life’s complexity points to intentional design, not accidental formation. The orchestration of multiple biological systems working in perfect synchronization points to a creator who designed life with purpose, rather than it being the product of blind, random processes. The challenges scientists face in trying to create life emphasize the incredible sophistication inherent in even the simplest living cells, reinforcing the view that life is a product of intelligent creation rather than evolutionary happenstance.

Gene duplications don't lead to evolution

Gene Duplications and Neofunctionalization – Epigenetic Control, No Evolution

Introduction

Gene duplication is a well-documented mechanism in biology that helps organisms to rapidly adapt to changing environments. Gene duplication followed by subfunctionalization or neofunctionalization involves the repurposing of existing genetic information, rather than the generation of new information through random mutations. This article will explore the mechanisms behind gene duplication, the critical role of epigenetic control, and the implications for polyploid organisms.

Common Mechanisms Leading to Gene Duplications

Gene duplications occur through several mechanisms, the most common being:

1. Segmental duplications: Large sections of DNA are duplicated due to errors during homologous recombination or chromosomal rearrangements.
2. Retrotransposition: An RNA transcript of a gene is reverse-transcribed back into DNA (as cDNA) and inserted into the genome.
3. Whole-genome duplication (polyploidy): This occurs mostly in plants and some animals, leading to the duplication of an entire set of chromosomes.
4. Unequal crossing over: Errors in meiotic recombination cause the duplication of genetic material on one chromosome and a deletion on another.

Types of Gene Duplications: DNA vs. RNA-based

DNA-based duplications involve direct copying of the gene from one locus to another via chromosomal rearrangements. In contrast, RNA-based duplications (retrotranspositions) involve the transcription of a gene into mRNA, which is reverse-transcribed into cDNA by reverse transcriptase, and then integrated into a new genomic location. This process often results in processed pseudogenes, which lack introns and regulatory elements necessary for normal gene expression.

cDNA analysis allows researchers to identify genes that have undergone retrotransposition, as the cDNA lacks intronic sequences and regulatory regions typical of DNA-based duplications. This difference in processing means that RNA-based duplications often lack the full regulatory framework of the original gene, which can affect their function.

Goldfish make alcohol to survive
the winter without oxygen

Epigenetic Regulation of Gene Duplicates

For a duplicated gene to be transcribed, precise and coordinated epigenetic control is required. This includes:

1. Promoters: Sequences that bind transcription factors to initiate RNA polymerase activity.
2. Enhancers/Activators: Regulatory regions that enhance the transcription of nearby genes.
3. Histone Modifications: Active transcription is marked by histone modifications such as H3K4me3 and H3K27ac.
4. DNA Methylation: Demethylation of CpG islands around promoter regions is necessary for transcription.
5. RNA-Mediated Control: Small RNAs like miRNAs and siRNAs can regulate or repress the transcription of duplicated genes.
6. Transcription Factors: Specific proteins that bind to promoters or enhancers, facilitating the transcription of the gene.

Without these coordinated factors, transcription of the duplicated gene would not occur, highlighting the importance of pre-existing regulatory mechanisms.

Fate of the Original Gene After Duplication

After duplication, several things may happen to the original gene:

• Gene Deletion: In some cases, the original gene may be deleted if the duplicated gene takes over its function.
• Subfunctionalization: The duplicated gene and the original gene may split the original function between them.
• Neofunctionalization: The duplicated gene may have a new function while the original gene retains its original role.
• Pseudogenization: One of the copies might become a non-functional pseudogene due to deleterious mutations or loss of regulatory elements.

Organisms Affected by Gene Duplication: Polyploidy

Gene duplication is especially common in polyploid organisms, such as plants, amphibians, and some fish species, which have undergone whole-genome duplication. Polyploidy results in the duplication of every gene in the genome. In these organisms, duplicated genes can either be maintained or gradually silenced or eliminated.

Uncontrolled Gene Duplications and Their Consequences

While gene duplication is a natural mechanism, uncontrolled or unregulated duplications can lead to harmful consequences. Copy number variations (CNVs), where certain genes are duplicated in an uncontrolled manner, can lead to genetic disorders such as cancer, where gene duplications amplify oncogenes, or developmental disorders caused by dosage imbalances.

Conclusion

Gene duplication followed by sub- or neofunctionalization demonstrates the inherent complexity of biological systems. Far from being a result of random mutations, this process relies on highly regulated mechanisms of duplication, transcriptional control, and epigenetic regulation. These findings align with the view that life’s complexity is the product of intelligent design, where pre-existing and pre-programmed genetic information is used in new ways, rather than evolving through undirected processes.

Summary

Gene duplication is a designed process that adds genetic material, but its expression and function depend on sophisticated epigenetic regulation. The intricacy of mechanisms such as promoter activation, histone modification, and transcription factor binding suggests a well-coordinated system rather than random evolutionary events. The fate of duplicated genes—whether they are deleted, subfunctionalized, or neofunctionalized—depends on how the genome handles these changes, further emphasizing the designed adaptability within living organisms. No evolution.