Random mutations never result in any kind of evolution
Excerpts: "There is growing evidence that much of the DNA in higher genomes is poly-functional, with the same nucleotide contributing to more than one type of code. Such poly-functional DNA should logically be multiply-constrained in terms of the probability of sequence improvement via random mutation. We describe a model of this relationship, which relates the degree of poly-functionality and the degree of constraint on mutational improvement. We show that: a) the probability of beneficial mutation is inversely related to the degree that a sequence is already optimized for a given code; b) the probability of beneficial mutation drastically diminishes as the number of overlapping codes increases. The growing evidence for a high degree of optimization in biological systems, and the growing evidence for multiple levels of poly-functionality within DNA, both suggest that mutations that are unambiguously beneficial must be especially rare. The theoretical scarcity of beneficial mutations is compounded by the fact that most of the beneficial mutations that do arise should confer extremely small increments of improvement in terms of total biological function. This makes such mutations invisible to natural selection. Beneficial mutations that are below a population's selection threshold are effectively neutral in terms of selection, and so should be entirely unproductive from an evolutionary perspective. We conclude that beneficial mutations that are unambiguous (not deleterious at any level), and useful (subject to natural selection), should be extremely rare."
"To further test the effect of multiple constraints on the appearance of beneficial mutations, we constructed a simple poly-constrained artificial system based on English crossword puzzles. Crossword puzzles, for our purpose, are simply collections of words with overlapping, shared letters among some of the words. Figure 6 [the picture below] contains an illustration of such puzzles. We are most familiar with two- dimensional crossword puzzles, where up to two words may share a single letter, but crossword puzzles can be extended to many dimensions. An L-dimensional crossword puzzle is here defined as a collection of words, such that up to L words may share a single, overlapping letter, for one or more letters in the puzzle. Each overlap forms a constraint on our puzzle, which limits the possible letters that are allowed in a given position. Increasing the number of words that share a single letter increases the number of constraints on that particular letter, and limits the number of values that letter position may take."
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| Crossword puzzles are familiar poly-constrained systems. Intersecting words create constraints on overlapping letters, such as the E of FILE in the first puzzle. Although a viable, functional mutation may change FILE to FILL, this would simultaneously change INTOLERANT to the non-functional INTOLLRANT, a non-word. As we increase the number of dimensions, the number of overlapping words can increase as well, further preventing beneficial changes. |
My comment: DNA reading mechanisms are able to read DNA from different locations and in both directions (3' and 5'). Words being read often overlap with each other and very often words are palindromes. Especially human genome is so perfectly organized and optimized that it doesn't tolerate random mistakes. This is why there are no fully beneficial mutations in human genome. Instead, the number of harmful genetic errors will soon exceed 2 million at population level. Evolution never happened. Don't be deceived.