No random mutations, no imaginary selection

Bacteria Quickly Fix a Faulty Motor by Rearranging DNA - In a couple of days

Recent research from the University of Reading has unveiled a striking example of bacteria's ability to rapidly reconfigure their genomes to restore functionality to their flagellar motors. This discovery challenges the conventional neo-Darwinian perspective that relies on random mutations and natural selection as the primary drivers of evolutionary change. Instead, it highlights the sophisticated and purposeful mechanisms that cells employ, pointing towards an intelligent design underpinning life's complexity.

The Passive Nature of DNA as an Information Library

At its core, DNA is a passive repository of genetic information, comprising long chains of nucleotides (A, T, C, G) that, on their own, do not actively do anything. The true significance of DNA emerges only when the cellular machinery transcribes and translates this information into functional proteins. This passive DNA serves as a highly organized information library, meticulously managed by the cell to meet various physiological and environmental demands.

Sophisticated Mechanisms of Genetic Reconfiguration

In the case of bacterial flagella, the rapid restoration of function following mechanical failure illustrates the cell's capacity for dynamic DNA rearrangement. This process involves:

1. Dynamic DNA Rearrangement: Specific enzymes within the bacterial cell can swiftly cut and rejoin DNA segments, enabling the formation of new gene combinations tailored to the cell's immediate needs.

2. Adaptive Genetic Reconfiguration: Plasmid Transfer: Bacteria can acquire new genetic material through plasmid transfer, a process where plasmids—small, circular DNA molecules—are exchanged between cells. This allows for the rapid introduction of new genes that can repair or enhance cellular functions.

3. Precision Genetic Editing: Unlike the slow, random mutations posited by neo-Darwinism, these bacterial mechanisms operate with high precision, driven by the cell's inherent ability to detect and respond to functional deficiencies.

4. Epigenetic Regulation: Bacteria utilize epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation and histone-like protein modifications, to regulate gene expression without altering the underlying DNA sequence. These modifications can enhance or silence specific genes, allowing for rapid and reversible adjustments to gene activity in response to environmental changes.

5. Recognition Mechanisms: Bacteria possess sophisticated recognition systems to identify and respond to functional deficits. For example:

   • Chemotaxis and Signal Transduction: Bacteria can detect environmental changes and internal malfunctions via chemotaxis pathways. When a flagellum is defective, the impaired movement triggers internal signaling cascades to initiate corrective actions.
   • Mechanical Sensors: The flagellum itself contains mechanical sensors that can detect the absence of proper motion, sending biochemical signals that activate repair mechanisms or stimulate genetic reconfiguration.

Intelligent Design vs. Neo-Darwinian Evolution

The rapidity and efficiency of these genetic rearrangements directly contradict the neo-Darwinian model that presupposes gradual changes over millions of years through random mutations and selection. Instead, what we observe is an intelligently designed system, capable of immediate and purposeful adaptation.

In natural environments, similar mechanisms enable organisms to swiftly adapt to changing conditions, ensuring survival and functionality. This adaptive capacity is encoded in several cellular information layers and regulated by sophisticated cellular epigenetic machinery, underscoring the preeminence of intelligent design in biological systems.

Conclusion

The ability of bacteria to quickly reconfigure their genomes to restore flagellar function exemplifies the profound intelligence inherent in biological design. These processes are far too intricate and rapid to be the product of random mutations and slow evolutionary pressures. Instead, they reveal a purposeful and highly organized approach to genetic information management, affirming the concept of intelligent design.

This discovery not only challenges the traditional evolutionary paradigm but also provides a deeper understanding of the remarkable capabilities embedded within the DNA's passive, yet meticulously organized information library. The rapid genetic changes observed in bacteria serve as a testament to the inherent intelligence and foresight embedded in the blueprint of life.

References

1. University of Reading. (n.d.). "Press Release on Bacterial Genetic Reconfiguration." Retrieved from University of Reading Press Releases
2. Meyer, S. C. (2009). Signature in the Cell: DNA and the Evidence for Intelligent Design. HarperOne.
3. Behe, M. J. (2019). Darwin Devolves: The New Science About DNA That Challenges Evolution. HarperOne.
4. Axe, D. (2016). Undeniable: How Biology Confirms Our Intuition That Life Is Designed. HarperOne.
5. Zhulin, I. B. (2001). "The Role of Chemotaxis in the Evolution of Bacterial Signaling Pathways." Nature Reviews Microbiology, 5(4), 256-267.
6. Casadesús, J., & Low, D. (2006). "Epigenetic Gene Regulation in the Bacterial World." Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews, 70(3), 830-856.

Scientific Research confirms Genetic Entropy

Genetic Entropy: Evidence from Bacterial, Yeast, Drosophila, C. elegans, and Human Genetic Data

Introduction

Genetic entropy refers to the hypothesis that genomes are deteriorating over time due to the accumulation of deleterious mutations. This concept challenges the traditional evolutionary framework, which posits that natural selection and beneficial mutations drive the progressive complexity and adaptability of organisms. This article combines empirical evidence from various organismal experiments and human genetic data to illustrate the pervasive impact of genetic entropy.

Evidence from Organismal Experiments

Bacteria: A key study highlighting genetic entropy in bacteria comes from Richard Lenski’s Long-Term Evolution Experiment (LTEE) with Escherichia coli. Over 50,000 generations, the bacterial populations were observed to undergo significant genetic changes. Notably, a study published in 2016 revealed that these bacteria lost approximately 1.4% of their DNA, an indication of genetic deterioration over time. Today, after 90,000 generations, the bacteria have lost almost 3% of their DNA.

Yeast: Studies on yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) have shown that over extended periods of replication, there is a noticeable decline in genetic stability. Accumulation of deleterious mutations in these populations has led to a decrease in overall fitness, demonstrating another clear example of genetic entropy.

Drosophila: Research on fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) has similarly indicated that long-term mutation accumulation experiments result in reduced viability and fitness. These studies consistently show a decline in the adaptive potential of populations, reinforcing the concept of genetic entropy.

C. elegans: Experiments with the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans have revealed that mutation accumulation can lead to significant declines in fitness and reproductive success. These findings support the hypothesis that genomes are subject to degradation over time due to the accumulation of harmful mutations.

Evidence from Human Genetic Data

The DisGeNet Plus database provides a comprehensive view of the human genome's susceptibility to deleterious mutations. Here are the key statistics from the latest version (v24.1):

• Gene-Disease Associations (GDAs): 1,793,304 associations between 26,090 genes and 39,797 diseases and traits.
• Variant-Disease Associations (VDAs): 1,201,698 associations between 704,086 variants and 16,774 diseases and traits.
• Disease-Disease Associations: Over 49 million associations.
• Animal Model Associations: Over 290,000 associations involving 12,000 diseases detected in animal models.
• Chemical Annotations: 3,981 chemicals associated with GDAs and VDAs.
• Publications Supporting Data: 1,470,167 publications for GDAs and 173,659 publications for VDAs, totaling 1,479,286 publications.

This data underscores the extensive presence of harmful mutations within the human genome, supporting the concept of genetic entropy.

Genetic Entropy: A Unified Perspective

1. Bacterial Genetic Deterioration:

   • The LTEE demonstrates a clear example of genetic entropy. The observed DNA loss over generations indicates a net loss of genetic information, contradicting the expectation of evolutionary progress through beneficial mutations.

2. Yeast, Drosophila, and C. elegans Studies:

   • Long-term studies on yeast, fruit flies, and nematodes all show a pattern of declining genetic stability and fitness due to mutation accumulation. These results are consistent with the concept of genetic entropy, where genomes degrade over time.

3. Human Genetic Burden:

   • The vast number of gene-disease and variant-disease associations in humans points to a significant burden of deleterious mutations. The DisGeNet Plus data reveals that a large proportion of the human genome is implicated in various diseases, further supporting the concept of genetic entropy.

Conclusion

The combined evidence from bacterial, yeast, Drosophila, C. elegans, and human genetic data provides a compelling case for genetic entropy. The continuous accumulation of deleterious mutations and the loss of genetic information over time challenge the evolutionary paradigm and support the concept of a designed genome subject to decay post-fall. The DisGeNet Plus data on human diseases and genetic variants highlights the pervasive impact of harmful mutations, reinforcing the need for a re-evaluation of evolutionary assumptions.

References

1. Maddamsetti, R., Lenski, R. E., & Barrick, J. E. (2016). Adaptation, Clonal Interference, and Frequency-Dependent Interactions in a Long-Term Evolution Experiment with Escherichia coli. Genome Biology and Evolution, 8(11), 3025–3034.
2. DisGeNet Plus. (2024). Gene-Disease Associations Database. DisGeNet Plus.
3. Lynch, M., & Walsh, B. (1998). Genetics and Analysis of Quantitative Traits. Sinauer.
4. Denver, D. R., et al. (2004). High Mutation Rate and Predominantly Male-Biased Mutation in C. elegans. Nature, 430(7000), 679-682.
5. Halligan, D. L., & Keightley, P. D. (2009). Spontaneous Mutation Accumulation Studies in Evolutionary Genetics. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 40, 151-172.

Compelling pieces of evidence for the global flood

Observed Evidence for the Global Flood

The concept of a global flood, as described in the Bible, has been a topic of interest and debate among scholars, scientists, and theologians. While mainstream science often attributes geological and biological phenomena to long-term processes, a Biblical perspective highlights evidence supporting the occurrence of a sudden, catastrophic event such as a global flood. This article explores several lines of evidence that may support the reality of this event.

1. Polystrate Fossils

Polystrate fossils, which extend through multiple sedimentary layers, suggest rapid sedimentation. These fossils, such as tree trunks found penetrating several layers of rock, indicate that these layers must have formed quickly, rather than over millions of years. This rapid burial is consistent with the effects of large, fast-moving water masses depositing sediments in a short period.

2. Marine Fossils on Mountain Tops

Marine fossils have been discovered in high-altitude mountain ranges like the Himalayas and the Andes. The presence of sea creatures such as trilobites and shellfish in these locations suggests that these areas were once underwater and have since been uplifted by significant geological forces. This evidence aligns with the idea of a global flood covering even the highest terrains, followed by tectonic activity that raised these areas to their current elevations.

3. Widespread Sedimentary Layers

The existence of extensive coal beds and other sedimentary deposits around the world points to a massive, rapid burial of vast amounts of organic material. For instance, the extensive coal deposits indicate that large forests were quickly buried under sediments, which then transformed into coal. Such a scenario is compatible with a global flood that uprooted and buried enormous amounts of vegetation in a relatively short time.

4. Fossil Assemblages

Fossil beds containing large groups of diverse species, buried together, suggest a sudden and catastrophic event. These assemblages often include land and sea creatures found in the same strata, implying they were rapidly buried by sediment-laden waters. This rapid burial prevented decay and scavenging, allowing for the preservation of the fossils.

5. Large-Scale Erosion and Sedimentation

Features like the Grand Canyon and extensive sedimentary rock layers indicate large-scale erosion and deposition. The sheer scale and volume of these geological formations suggest that they were formed by immense and rapid water movements, rather than slow and gradual processes. This supports the idea of a global flood reshaping the Earth's surface through powerful erosive forces.

6. Similar Fish Species in Isolated Ecosystems

African Cichlids in closed ecosystems

One compelling piece of evidence for the global flood is the presence of similar fish species in isolated ecosystems around the world. For example, cichlid fish species, which are found in both Central America and Africa, show remarkable similarities despite being separated by vast distances and different environments. This distribution pattern suggests that these fish were once part of a connected aquatic system that became fragmented. After the floodwaters receded, these fish were trapped in isolated lakes and river systems, leading to their current distribution. This supports the notion that marine life was once globally dispersed and later confined to isolated pockets as waters receded and landmasses emerged.

Central American Cichlids in closed ecosystems

Conclusion

The evidence presented above supports the Biblical view of the global flood, highlighting geological and biological phenomena that align with a sudden, catastrophic event. Polystrate fossils, marine fossils on mountains, widespread sedimentary layers, fossil assemblages, large-scale erosion, and the distribution of similar fish species in isolated ecosystems collectively point to the reality of the global flood. These findings challenge the conventional long-term geological models and suggest that the Earth's surface was shaped by a significant and rapid event, consistent with the Biblical account of Noah's flood.

References

• Austin, S. A. (1994). Grand Canyon: Monument to Catastrophe. Institute for Creation Research.
• Snelling, A. A. (2009). Earth’s Catastrophic Past: Geology, Creation & the Flood. Institute for Creation Research.
• Morris, J. D. (1996). The Young Earth. Master Books.
• Whitcomb, J. C., & Morris, H. M. (1961). The Genesis Flood: The Biblical Record and Its Scientific Implications. Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company.

Gene Duplications don't lead to Evolution

Gene Duplications Point to Intelligent Design and Creation

"By faith we understand that the universe was formed at God's command, so that what is seen was not made out of what was visible." (Hebrews 11:3, NIV)

Gene duplications are remarkable processes that underscore the complexity and precision of genetic mechanisms, pointing towards Intelligent Design and Creation. Unlike the gradualistic explanations offered by evolutionary theory, the evidence suggests that gene duplications are epigenetically controlled and regulated events, enabling organisms to adapt rapidly and efficiently to environmental changes.

Epigenetically Controlled Gene Duplications

Gene duplications are not random occurrences but are guided by epigenetic mechanisms. These mechanisms include histone modifications, DNA methylation, and non-coding RNAs, which together ensure that duplications occur in a controlled manner. For instance, histone acetylation can relax chromatin structure, making specific genomic regions more accessible for duplication. DNA methylation patterns can change in response to environmental triggers, such as stress or dietary changes, initiating the duplication process. Non-coding RNAs, such as microRNAs, can further regulate gene expression by binding to mRNA transcripts and preventing their translation.

Once a gene is duplicated, the cell must manage the additional genetic material. This often involves DNA loss mechanisms, such as unequal crossing over during meiosis, which help maintain genomic integrity by removing excess DNA. This dynamic balance ensures that the genome does not become unwieldy while still allowing for genetic adaptability.

Harmfulness of Gene Duplications in Diploid Organisms

In diploid organisms, like humans, gene duplications can often be detrimental. Duplications can disrupt the balance of gene dosage, leading to genetic disorders and diseases. For example, the duplication of certain genes has been associated with conditions like Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease and some forms of cancer. This indicates that while gene duplications can provide adaptability, they also carry significant risks if not precisely regulated.

Regulatory Mechanisms Necessary for Controlled Gene Duplication

For gene duplications to occur in a controlled manner, several regulatory mechanisms must be precisely in place:

1. Epigenetic Marks: Histone modifications and DNA methylation patterns must be established and maintained to identify which genes can be duplicated.
2. Non-coding RNAs: MicroRNAs and long non-coding RNAs must regulate the stability and translation of mRNA transcripts.
3. Transcription Factors: Specific proteins must bind to promoter regions to initiate or suppress gene expression.
4. CpG Islands: Regions rich in cytosine and guanine nucleotides must be appropriately methylated to control gene expression.
5. 4D Genome Architecture: The spatial organization of the genome within the nucleus must facilitate the accessibility and replication of specific regions.

These mechanisms highlight the complexity and precision required for gene duplications, reinforcing the concept of Intelligent Design.

Gene Duplications and Biological Information

Contrary to evolutionary claims, gene duplication does not create new biological information. Instead, it results in the copying of existing genetic material. The duplicated gene may undergo intentional alterations or acquire new functions (by using different splice variants), but this is a modification of pre-existing information rather than the creation of novel information. Specific enzymes, such as ADAR, A3G, and AID can also target duplicated genes for intentional modifications. For instance, ADARs and APOBECs can edit RNA transcripts from duplicated genes, leading to changes in protein function or gene regulation. In some cases, these edits can create new splice variants or alter mRNA stability, thereby modulating the expression and function of the duplicated gene copies​ (BioMed Central) Intelligent Design posits that the original genetic information was created with the capacity for such modifications, allowing organisms to adapt without the need for new genetic information to evolve from non-information.

The Human AMY Gene Family

The human AMY gene family, which includes genes responsible for amylase production (AMY1 for salivary amylase and AMY2 for pancreatic amylase), showcases the complexity of epigenetic control of DNA. These genes can produce multiple splice variants (different mRNAs) through alternative splicing, a process that is itself highly regulated and complex.

Alternative Splicing

Alternative splicing allows a single gene to produce multiple mRNA variants, leading to the production of different protein isoforms. For a gene duplicate to function, several epigenetic mechanisms and factors must be precisely in place:

• DNA Methylation: Influences which exons are included in the final mRNA transcript.
• Histone Modifications: Affect chromatin structure and gene accessibility.
• RNA Molecules: Non-coding RNAs can bind to mRNA transcripts, influencing splicing choices.
• Transcription Factors: Bind to enhancer or silencer regions to regulate splicing.
• CpG Islands: Act as regulatory regions that can enhance or suppress transcription.
• 4D Genome: The spatial arrangement of DNA within the nucleus affects gene expression and splicing outcomes.

The sophisticated regulation of the AMY gene family through alternative splicing underscores the complexity and precision of genetic mechanisms, pointing to an intelligent design rather than random evolutionary processes.

Conclusion

If gene duplication mechanisms are so vital for the survival of polyploid organisms, evolutionary theory would suggest that selective pressure should favor the preservation and development of such mechanisms in diploid organisms, like humans. However, it can be observed that gene duplications in humans and other diploid organisms are generally harmful, raising questions about evolution's ability to explain the uneven distribution of these mechanisms.

Gene duplications and their regulation provide compelling evidence for Intelligent Design and Creation. The intricate mechanisms that control gene duplications, the potentially harmful effects of duplications in diploid organisms, and the complexity of processes like alternative splicing all point to a designed and purposeful genetic system. This aligns with the Biblical view of a Creator who designed life with the ability to adapt and thrive in a changing world.

References

1. Epigenetic regulation of gene expression: how the environment influences our genes, Nature Reviews Genetics.
2. The role of non-coding RNAs in gene regulation, Cell.
3. Gene duplications and their impact on human disease, Journal of Medical Genetics.
4. Alternative splicing: a means to an end or an end to a means? Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology.
5. 4D genome organization and its implications for gene regulation, Genome Biology.

Crude Oil doesn't take Millions of Years to Form

Have We Been Deceived? – Oil Forms Quickly!

https://medwinpublishers.com/OAJWX/OAJWX16000131.pdf

Introduction

Recent research by David Bloch presents a compelling case that oil formation occurs much more rapidly than traditionally believed. This challenges the long-standing view that crude oil requires millions of years to form. Bloch's study emphasizes the role of salt layers and their "salt mirrors" in accelerating this process.

Mechanisms of Oil Formation

Traditional theories posit that oil forms over millions of years through the burial and heating of organic material under high pressure and temperature. However, Bloch's research indicates a more dynamic and faster process:

1. Salt Mirrors: These are reflective surfaces within salt layers that facilitate the rapid transport of organic matter. When organic material comes into contact with these mirrors, it dissolves and is transported downward.

2. Transformation to Oil: The transported organic matter, under suitable conditions of temperature and pressure, transforms into crude oil. The salt mirrors significantly expedite this process by enhancing the efficiency of organic matter movement and concentration.

Role of Salt Layers

Salt layers play a crucial role in the rapid formation of oil. These layers can be several kilometers thick, acting as both catalysts and reservoirs in the oil formation process.

1. Global Distribution: Salt layers vary in thickness and are found in many regions around the world:

   • Gulf of Mexico: Salt layers up to 10 kilometers thick.
   • North Sea: Salt deposits several kilometers thick.
   • Middle East: Extensive salt formations contributing to large oil reserves.
   • South Atlantic: Significant salt layers off the coasts of Brazil and Angola.

2. Properties: Salt is impermeable, preventing the escape of oil and gas, thus trapping them in large reservoirs. This quality is essential for the accumulation and preservation of oil.

Implications

The findings suggest that oil reservoirs might replenish more quickly than previously thought. This has profound implications for the oil industry and our understanding of geological processes. The rapid formation theory could lead to new exploration strategies and more efficient extraction methods.

Conclusion

David Bloch's study revolutionizes the conventional understanding of oil formation, highlighting the significant role of salt layers and their ability to facilitate rapid oil generation. As research progresses, these insights may transform the future of oil exploration and extraction, presenting a paradigm shift in geology and petroleum science. Bloch's research also refutes the common belief that complex geological processes require millions of years.

Salt Deposits and the "Fountains of the Great Deep"

Associations Between Salt Deposits and the "Fountains of the Great Deep"

Gen. 7:11 "In the six hundredth year of Noah's life, in the second month, the seventeenth day of the month, the same day were all the fountains of the great deep broken up, and the windows of heaven were opened."

Linking salt deposits to the "fountains of the great deep" from the Biblical global flood perspective involves identifying regions where significant salt deposits might have formed as a result of the catastrophic release of water described in the Biblical Flood account. These areas could be where subterranean waters, rich in dissolved minerals, emerged and later evaporated, leaving behind extensive salt layers. The salt layer beneath the Earth's crust can be up to five kilometers thick. Here are some specific examples and their potential associations:

1. Great Salt Lake, Utah

   • Description: The Great Salt Lake in Utah is a remnant of the ancient Lake Bonneville, which was a massive freshwater lake.
   • Association: The release of large quantities of mineral-rich water from subterranean sources during the Flood could have contributed to the formation of Lake Bonneville. As the waters receded and evaporated, significant salt deposits could have been left behind, forming what we now see as the Great Salt Lake and its surrounding salt flats.

2. The Dead Sea, Israel/Jordan

   • Description: The Dead Sea is one of the saltiest bodies of water on Earth, with substantial salt formations in the region.
   • Association: This area could be linked to the "fountains of the great deep" through the release of deep, mineral-laden waters during the Flood. The confined basin of the Dead Sea could have facilitated the concentration of salts as the waters evaporated.

3. 

   The El Sod crater in Ethiopia is located 1,700 meters
   above sea level. Local residents collect large amounts
   of valuable salt from the crater's lake. The salt
   originates from beneath the Earth's crust.

   Danakil Depression, Ethiopia (El Sod)

   • Description: The Danakil Depression, including the El Sod salt crater, is one of the lowest and hottest places on Earth, with extensive salt flats.
   • Association: The Danakil Depression could have experienced significant geological upheaval during the Flood, causing deep waters to emerge and later evaporate, leaving behind the thick salt deposits we see today.
     

4. Salar de Uyuni, Bolivia

   • Description: Salar de Uyuni is the world's largest salt flat, located in the high Andes of Bolivia.
   • Association: This salt flat could be the result of water bursting forth from the Earth's crust in a high-altitude basin during the Flood. As these waters evaporated, they left behind vast salt deposits.

5. Zechstein Sea, Northern Europe

   • Description: The Zechstein Sea was an ancient sea that left extensive salt deposits across Northern Europe, particularly in regions like Germany and Poland.
   • Association: These deposits might be associated with the Flood through the release of deep waters into the Zechstein basin. The subsequent evaporation of these waters would have resulted in thick layers of salt.

6. The Mediterranean Region: Geological Context

   The Mediterranean region is characterized by complex geological activity, including tectonic movements, volcanic activity, and significant sedimentary processes. Examining the evidence of salt deposits and their potential connection to the "fountains of the great deep" within this context provides a comprehensive perspective.

• The rapid deposition of large amounts of salt during the Messinian Salinity Crisis could be interpreted as consistent with a sudden influx of mineral-rich waters from deep within the Earth. This aligns with the concept of "fountains of the great deep" releasing vast quantities of water and dissolved minerals.
• The fragile sandstone formations observed on Mediterranean islands and coastlines could be explained by rapid sedimentation processes. The swift burial and lithification of sediments during a catastrophic flood event could produce these types of rock formations.

        7.  Major Salt Deposits in Australia

        
            Lake Eyre Basin

• Description: The Lake Eyre Basin is one of the largest endorheic (closed drainage) basins in the world and contains Lake Eyre, a major salt lake.
• Evidence: Lake Eyre frequently cycles through periods of filling with water and drying out, leaving behind extensive salt crusts and evaporite deposits.

            Murray-Darling Basin

• Description: The Murray-Darling Basin, covering much of southeastern Australia, contains numerous salt lakes and saline groundwater.
• Evidence: This basin has thick sequences of sedimentary rocks, including evaporites formed in ancient saline conditions.

            Western Australia Salt Lakes

• Description: Western Australia features numerous salt lakes, such as Lake Disappointment and Lake Mackay, which have high salinity levels and extensive salt crusts.
• Evidence: These salt lakes are indicators of significant evaporative processes and saline groundwater sources.

Geological and Biblical Integration

In integrating these geological formations with the Genesis account:

1. Mechanisms of Salt Formation:

   • The sudden release of large volumes of mineral-rich water from below the Earth's crust could explain the initial flooding and subsequent evaporation leading to salt deposit formation.
   • These processes could have been driven by tectonic activity, the fracturing of the Earth's crust, and volcanic activity, which are all consistent with the description of the "fountains of the great deep."

2. Regional Geological Features:

   • Mid-Ocean Ridges and Subduction Zones: These areas of intense geological activity could have provided the pathways for deep waters to reach the surface.
   • Rift Valleys: The stretching and fracturing of the Earth's crust in places like the East African Rift could have facilitated the upwelling of deep waters, contributing to salt deposit formation.
   • Volcanic Regions: Volcanic activity, particularly in regions like the Ring of Fire, could have been a source of both water and mineral-rich deposits that led to salt formation.

Conclusion

The associations between significant salt deposits and the "fountains of the great deep" suggest that these geological features could be remnants of the catastrophic events described in the Biblical Flood. The release of mineral-laden waters from deep within the Earth, combined with subsequent evaporation, provides a plausible explanation for the formation of extensive salt deposits in various parts of the world. These interpretations align with a Genesis perspective that seeks to reconcile geological observations with the Biblical account of Earth's history.

Evidence for Genetic Entropy

Loss of Taste Receptors Points to Genetic Entropy

The phenomenon of losing taste receptors in various animal species highlights the concept of genetic entropy. This concept suggests that the degradation of genetic information over time can lead to the loss of certain functionalities, such as taste perception. Below are some notable examples of taste receptor loss in different species.

CpG Island Breakdown and C>T Mutation Bias

The loss of taste receptors in various species is often linked to the breakdown of CpG islands, which are critical regions for gene regulation. CpG islands are prone to mutations, particularly C>T transitions, due to the deamination of methylated cytosines. These mutations can lead to the pseudogenization of taste receptor genes, where once functional genes become inactive. In cats, for example, the Tas1R2 gene responsible for sweet taste perception has become a pseudogene, partly due to the accumulation of mutations in its regulatory CpG islands. Similarly, the inactivation of taste receptor genes in dolphins, whales, and other carnivorous mammals can be traced back to changes in these CpG-rich regions. The breakdown and subsequent methylation changes in CpG islands result in the loss of gene function, supporting the concept of genetic entropy as it relates to taste receptor degradation.

Examples of Taste Receptor Loss

1. Cats (Felidae Family)

   • Large felids like lions and tigers, as well as domestic cats, have lost the taste receptors necessary for detecting sweetness (Tas1R2 gene). This is due to 
     
     C>T mutation bias leading to CpG island breakdown.

2. Dolphins and Whales (Cetacea Order)

   • Dolphins and other whales have lost almost all of their taste receptor genes. This is due to C>T mutation bias leading to CpG island breakdown.

3. Chicken (Gallus gallus)

   • Chickens lack sweet taste receptors due to C>T mutation bias leading to CpG island breakdown.

4. Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca)

   • Pandas have lost the umami taste receptor, which is due to 
     
     C>T mutation bias leading to CpG island breakdown.

5. Carnivorous Animals

   • Many carnivores, such as hyenas and the fossa (a predator from Madagascar), have also lost sweet taste receptors. This aligns with their diet, which lacks sugar-rich plants. This is due to C>T mutation bias leading to CpG island breakdown.

6. Bats (Chiroptera Order)

   • While most fruit bats can detect sweet flavors, some insectivorous bats have lost this ability since their diet consists mainly of protein-rich insects. This is due to 
     
     C>T mutation bias leading to CpG island breakdown.

7. Sea Turtles (Chelonioidea Superfamily)

   • Some species of sea turtles have lost certain taste receptors. This is due to 
     
     C>T mutation bias leading to CpG island breakdown.

8. Penguins (Spheniscidae Family)

   • Penguins have lost the receptors for sweet, umami, and bitter tastes. This is due to C>T mutation bias leading to CpG island breakdown.

Genetic Entropy and Taste Receptor Loss

The loss of taste receptors in these examples can be seen as a form of genetic entropy, where the degradation or loss of genetic information leads to a reduction in functional capabilities. In each of these cases, the specific dietary needs and environmental conditions of the species have rendered certain taste receptors obsolete. This loss is a clear indicator of how genetic information can deteriorate over time, resulting in a more specialized but less versatile genetic makeup. It also clearly suggests that many animals, which are now considered carnivores or predators, were originally able to use plants as their food after creation. 

Conclusion

The study of taste receptor loss across various species provides a compelling look at genetic entropy in action. These changes highlight how epigenetic regulation drives the loss of genetic functions, resulting in non-functional regulatory areas and genes (pseudogenes). A cell does not have a mechanism to build new CpG islands. This observation ALONE debunks the entire theory of evolution.

Sources

• Li, X., et al. "Pseudogenization of a Sweet-Receptor Gene Accounts for Cats’ Indifference toward Sugar." Science, vol. 317, no. 5836, 2007, pp. 1237-1239.
• Zhao, H., et al. "Molecular Evidence for the Loss of Three Basic Tastes in Pinnipeds." Chemical Senses, vol. 41, no. 5, 2016, pp. 379-385.
• Zhao, H., et al. "Loss of Taste Receptor Genes in Marine Mammals." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 107, no. 19, 2010, pp. 9339-9344.
• Jiang, P., et al. "Major Taste Loss in Carnivorous Mammals." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 109, no. 13, 2012, pp. 4956-4961.

The Fraud of Lucy now exposed

Lucy is Not Our Ancestor

The discovery and subsequent interpretation of the Australopithecus afarensis specimen known as Lucy have long been heralded as pivotal in the story of human evolution. However, recent research casts significant doubt on this narrative, suggesting that Lucy may not be a direct ancestor of modern humans but rather more closely resembles a chimpanzee or baboon.

Doubts About Lucy's Hominin Status

Fossil Evidence and Locomotion

Recent studies have emphasized that Australopithecus afarensis exhibited a mix of both arboreal and terrestrial traits, which contradicts the notion of them being obligate bipeds like modern humans. The evidence suggests that these hominins had significant adaptations for climbing, such as long arms and curved fingers, characteristics typical of tree-dwelling primates rather than ground-walking humans​ (SCIEPublish)​​ (SCIEPublish).

https://www.sciepublish.com/article/pii/94

Excerpts and observations: "We review the numerous similarities between australopithecines and extant African apes, suggesting that they are possibly not hominins and therefore not our direct ancestors."
"Australopithecines exhibit numerous skeletal traits that align closely with those of extant African apes, rather than with modern humans."

"The dental morphology of australopithecines shows a marked similarity to that of
chimpanzees, suggesting a dietary adaptation more akin to non-human primates."

"Postcranial features, such as long arms and curved fingers, indicate that australopithecines were adapted for arboreal locomotion, similar to modern apes."

"The cranial capacity of australopithecines remains within the range of that observed in chimpanzees and gorillas, far smaller than that of Homo species."

"Analysis of the pelvic structure reveals a form more consistent with that of quadrupedal apes than the bipedalism seen in humans"​

"Australopithecines demonstrate a significant number of traits typical of quadrupedal apes, particularly in their limb proportions and locomotor adaptations, which align more closely with those of modern chimpanzees and gorillas."

"The structure of the australopithecine pelvis and lower limbs suggests that while they could walk bipedally, their primary mode of locomotion was likely similar to the arboreal climbing observed in extant apes."

"The dental patterns found in australopithecine fossils show clear similarities to those of non-human primates, indicating a diet and lifestyle that were likely more ape-like."

"Facial morphology and cranial features of australopithecines exhibit a strong resemblance to that of African apes, with pronounced prognathism and a lack of the derived traits seen in Homo species."

"Comparative analyses of australopithecine and ape fossil footprints suggest that their walking mechanics were more aligned with those of modern apes rather than with the bipedal gait of humans"

Questionable Reconstructions

One of the most controversial aspects of Lucy's depiction is the extent to which she has been portrayed with human-like features. Artistic reconstructions often show Lucy with white sclera, a trait of modern humans that cannot be determined from fossilized bones alone. This portrayal has arguably been crafted to make Lucy appear more human than the evidence supports, perpetuating a narrative that aligns with the evolutionary paradigm without robust scientific backing.

Fossil Context and Integrity

On what basis does Lucy have white scleras?

Lucy's remains were discovered in various locations, including Hadar in Ethiopia. These fossils were not found in a single, intact skeleton but were instead scattered across different sites and strata, raising questions about their association and the accuracy of the reconstructed specimen. This dispersal over different geographic locations and sedimentary layers further complicates the claim that these fossils belong to a single individual or species closely related to humans​ (SCIEPublish).

Conclusion

The evidence presented in recent studies casts serious doubt on the long-standing claim that Lucy is a direct ancestor of modern humans. The mix of arboreal and terrestrial traits, the questionable reconstructions, and the dispersed nature of the fossil finds all suggest that Australopithecus afarensis may be more closely related to modern chimpanzees or baboons than to Homo sapiens. Evolution never happened.

References

1. Nature Anthropology - Volume 2/Issue 1
2. SCIEPublish Article

There is still a serious missing link problem - Lucy is not our ancestor

The Forced Fit: How Scientists Struggle to Place Ape Fossils into the Imaginary Human Evolutionary Tree

The quest to trace human ancestry through evolutionary theory is fraught with contradictions, contentious debates, and frequent reinterpretations of fossil evidence. Despite the confident assertions of many in the scientific community, the evolutionary narrative is anything but settled. A clear example of this ongoing controversy is the varied interpretations of the fossils attributed to species such as Homo erectus, Homo naledi, Homo heidelbergensis, and Homo neanderthalensis.

Disputes over Fossil Interpretation and Dating

Fossil discoveries often lead to more questions than answers. Take Homo erectus, for instance. Found in diverse locations ranging from Africa to Asia, these fossils show a surprising amount of variation. Some researchers argue that these differences are significant enough to warrant separate species classifications, while others insist they are merely regional variants of a single species.

According to a recent study, Lucy was not the evolutionary ancestor of humans.

Similarly, Homo naledi, discovered in South Africa, has puzzled scientists with its mix of primitive and modern features. The initial dating suggested it was relatively young, around 250,000 years old, overlapping with early Homo sapiens. However, this poses a conundrum as its morphology seems more archaic, leading to debates about its place in the assumed human lineage.

Homo heidelbergensis is another controversial figure. Widely considered a common ancestor of both modern humans and Neanderthals, its fossils have been found across Europe and Africa. Yet, disagreements about the dating and morphological interpretations persist. The lack of preserved DNA from Homo heidelbergensis adds another layer of complexity, making it challenging to draw definitive conclusions about its relationship to other species.

The DNA Paradox

One of the most glaring inconsistencies in the evolutionary paradigm is the differential preservation of DNA in fossils. While scientists have successfully extracted DNA from Neanderthals and Denisovans, they have been unable to do so for Homo heidelbergensis. This raises questions about the mechanisms of DNA preservation and the reliability of evolutionary timelines. Remarkably, chromatin fibers (which house DNA) have been reported in a supposed Caudipteryx fossil, a dinosaur allegedly millions of years older than any Homo heidelbergensis fossil. This contradiction undermines the credibility of the long-age evolutionary framework and suggests that DNA can't survive for millions of years even under the right conditions, aligning more closely with a recent Creation perspective.

The Absence of a Viable Mechanism for Evolution

Beyond fossil interpretations, the theory of evolution itself lacks a robust mechanism for the macroevolutionary changes it purports. Natural selection and genetic mutations, scientifically unproven but claimed drivers of evolution, fail to account for the vast complexity and information content inherent in biological systems. The precision and interdependence observed in cellular machinery point towards an Intelligent design and Creation rather than random, undirected processes.

Conclusion

The persistent disputes over fossil interpretations and dating, coupled with the paradox of DNA preservation, highlight the weaknesses of the evolutionary narrative. From a biblical creationist standpoint, these inconsistencies underscore the validity of the Genesis account, which posits that humans were uniquely created by God and did not evolve from ape-like ancestors. The ongoing inability to reconcile fossil evidence with evolutionary theory should prompt a re-evaluation of the assumptions underpinning the evolutionary model. There is still a serious missing link problem: An intermediate between humans and apes. Evolution never happened.

References

1. Tattersall, I. (1997). "Out of Africa Again…and Again?" Scientific American, 276(4), 60-67.
2. Rightmire, G. P. (2008). "Homo erectus and Middle Pleistocene Hominids: Brain Size, Skull Form, and Species Recognition." Journal of Human Evolution, 55(6), 1171-1184.
3. Dirks, P. H., et al. (2015). "Geological and Taphonomic Context for the New Hominin Species Homo naledi from the Dinaledi Chamber, South Africa." eLife, 4, e09561.
4. Stringer, C. (2012). "The Status of Homo heidelbergensis (Schoetensack 1908)." Evolutionary Anthropology, 21(3), 101-107.
5. Dawkins, R. (2004). The Ancestor’s Tale: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Evolution. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
6. Schweitzer, M. H., et al. (1997). "Heme Compounds in Dinosaur Trabecular Bone." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 94(12), 6291-6296.
7. Behe, M. J. (1996). Darwin's Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution. Free Press.
8. Mario Vaneechoutte, Frances Mansfield,  Stephen Munro,  Marc Verhaegen (2023) : Have We Been Barking up the Wrong Ancestral Tree? Australopithecines Are Probably Not Our Ancestors

In summary, the fossil record and DNA evidence, when viewed through a biblical creationist lens, point towards a special creation rather than an evolutionary process. The frequent revisions and debates within the scientific community further demonstrate the instability of the evolutionary framework.

Color Blindness points to Genetic Entropy

The Loss of Pentachromatic Vision: A Scientific Perspective on Genetic Entropy

Introduction

In this scientific perspective, we consider the hypothesis that humanity was initially endowed with a highly efficient genome, which included superior biological functions such as pentachromatic vision. Over generations, due to genetic entropy—the accumulation of harmful mutations—this advanced color vision capability has deteriorated. This article explores the idea that pentachromatic vision was originally prevalent among humans and has since been lost due to genetic degradation, particularly focusing on mutations in the X chromosome.

Pentachromatic Vision: An Original Design

The concept of pentachromatic vision suggests the presence of five types of cone cells in the retina, each sensitive to different wavelengths of light. This would significantly enhance color discrimination compared to the common trichromatic vision, which relies on three cone types. Evidence for more complex color vision capabilities can be seen in certain rare individuals today, particularly women with tetrachromatic vision, who possess a fourth type of cone cell.

According to the research by Davidoff (2015) at the University of Washington, some women exhibit superior color differentiation, hinting at the possibility of additional cone types. This could be a remnant of the original human genome, suggesting that our ancestors might have had even more advanced visual capabilities.

Genetic Entropy and the X Chromosome

Genetic entropy, a term popularized by geneticist Dr. John Sanford, describes the process by which genomes deteriorate over time due to the accumulation of deleterious mutations. This concept is particularly relevant when examining the decline in color vision capabilities.

The genes responsible for color vision are located on the X chromosome. Men, having only one X chromosome, are particularly susceptible to color vision deficiencies if they inherit a defective gene. In contrast, women, with two X chromosomes, are less likely to be affected unless both chromosomes carry the mutation. This difference explains why color blindness is much more prevalent in men.

Rapid Genetic Deterioration

Scientific observations indicate that the rate of genetic mutation is significant, leading to relatively rapid genetic changes over generations. For instance, studies have shown that the mutation rate in the human genome is approximately 100-200 new mutations per generation. Most of these mutations are harmful or slightly deleterious, contributing to a gradual and accumulative decline in genomic integrity.

Dr. John Sanford's model of genetic entropy suggests that this accumulation of mutations leads to a continuous decrease in the overall fitness of the population. If we apply this model to color vision, it becomes evident that the increasing prevalence of color vision deficiencies in men can be attributed to the accumulation of harmful mutations in the X chromosome.

Supporting Evidence

The loss of advanced color vision capabilities aligns with the genetic entropy model. Studies like the one conducted by Davidoff (2015) provide evidence that some women retain exceptional color vision abilities, which may be vestiges of a more complex visual system. Additionally, the relatively high mutation rate observed in the X chromosome genes responsible for color vision supports the hypothesis that these capabilities have been degraded over time.

Research into populations with high incidences of color blindness further supports the rapidity of genetic deterioration. For example, certain isolated communities show higher rates of color vision deficiencies, indicating that genetic drift and the founder effect can accelerate the accumulation of deleterious mutations.

Conclusion

From a scientific perspective, the presence of pentachromatic vision in early humans aligns with the belief in an originally optimal genome after creation. The subsequent loss of this capability through genetic entropy underscores the impact of accumulated mutations on human health and functionality. As we continue to study genetic deterioration, the evidence supports the notion that our genomes are indeed devolving, leading to a decline in previously optimal biological functions. Evolution never happened.

References

1. Davidoff, Candice. (2015). Investigating the Pentachromatic Vision in Women: A Genetic Perspective. University of Washington. Retrieved from https://digital.lib.washington.edu/researchworks/bitstream/handle/1773/33578/Davidoff_washington_0250E_15133.pdf?sequence=1
2. Sanford, J. C. (2008). Genetic Entropy and the Mystery of the Genome. Elim Publishing.
3. Colour Blind Awareness. (2021). Colour Blindness Statistics. Retrieved from https://www.colourblindawareness.org/colour-blindness/
4. EnChroma. (2021). Facts About Color Blindness. Retrieved from https://enchroma.com/pages/facts-about-color-blindness

Rapid Speciation by Epigenetic Mechanisms

Speciation occurs rapidly and it's based on Dynamic and Reversible Epigenetic Mechanisms - Evolution never happened

Introduction

Speciation, the process by which new species arise, has traditionally been viewed through the lens of genetic mutations and natural selection. However, recent research has unveiled the pivotal role of epigenetic mechanisms—dynamic and reversible modifications that regulate gene expression without altering the DNA sequence—in driving rapid speciation. Unlike permanent genetic changes, epigenetic modifications offer a flexible and swift response to environmental changes, enabling organisms to adapt quickly and potentially form new species. This article delves into the mechanisms behind epigenetic speciation, how they operate, and why these changes, despite their significant impact, do not constitute evolution in the classical sense due to their reversible nature.

Mechanisms of Epigenetic Regulation in Speciation

Epigenetic regulation encompasses various processes, including DNA methylation, histone modification, alternative splicing, and RNA editing. These mechanisms can produce heritable phenotypic changes that contribute to speciation.

DNA Methylation and Histone Modification

DNA methylation involves the addition of a methyl group to DNA, often resulting in gene silencing. Histone modification, including acetylation and methylation, alters chromatin structure, influencing gene expression. Both mechanisms can lead to significant phenotypic variations, enabling populations to adapt to different environmental conditions.

Alternative Splicing

Alternative splicing allows a single gene to produce multiple protein isoforms, enhancing the diversity of the proteome. This process is regulated by epigenetic factors and can generate functional differences crucial for adaptation and reproductive isolation.

RNA-Editing

RNA-editing modifies RNA molecules post-transcriptionally, altering the protein-coding potential without changing the underlying DNA sequence. This mechanism can introduce phenotypic variability, facilitating rapid adaptation to environmental changes.

Case Studies of Epigenetic Speciation

Several examples illustrate how epigenetic mechanisms drive speciation in various organisms:

1. 

   Heliconius Butterflies:

   • Mechanism: DNA methylation and histone modification.
   • Outcome: Wing pattern diversification leading to mimicry and mate selection, promoting reproductive isolation​ (Frontiers)​​ (Oxford Academic)​.
     

2. Lycaenid Butterflies:

   • Mechanism: Environmental stress-induced epigenetic changes.
   • Outcome: Heritable wing pattern modifications contributing to population divergence and speciation​ (Frontiers)​.

3. Pea Aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum):

   • Mechanism: DNA methylation and histone modification.
   • Outcome: Adaptation to different host plants, leading to distinct ecotypes and speciation​ (Oxford Academic)​.

4. Bumblebees (Bombus terrestris):

   • Mechanism: Alternative splicing.
   • Outcome: Differences in behavior, physiology, and morphology, promoting ecological diversification and speciation​ (Oxford Academic)​.

5. Drosophila (Drosophila melanogaster):

   • Mechanism: Alternative splicing and RNA-editing.
   • Outcome: Sensory perception and mating behavior variations leading to reproductive isolation and speciation​ (Oxford Academic)​.

6. Lake Whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis):

   • Mechanism: DNA methylation patterns.
   • Outcome: Adaptation to different ecological niches and reproductive isolation​ (Oxford Academic)​.

7. Black Poplar (Populus nigra):

   • Mechanism: Epigenetic variation.
   • Outcome: Rapid adaptation to environmental changes and population divergence​ (Christophe Ambroise)​.

8. House Sparrows (Passer domesticus):

   • Mechanism: Epigenetic variation.
   • Outcome: Adaptation to diverse environmental conditions, potentially leading to reproductive isolation and speciation over time​ (SpringerLink)​​ (Oxford Academic)​.

9. Polyploid Plants:

   • Mechanism: Epigenetic reprogramming in polyploid species.
   • Outcome: Stabilization of hybrid genomes leading to the formation of new species, as seen in the case of wheat (Triticum aestivum)​ (Oxford Academic)​​ (SpringerLink)​.

10. Darwin's Finches:

    • Mechanism: Epigenetic modifications, particularly DNA methylation patterns.
    • Outcome: Adaptive radiation and formation of new species due to changes in beak morphology and feeding behaviors​ (SpringerLink)​.

11. Cichlid Fish (Astatotilapia calliptera):

    • Mechanism: Divergent epigenetic patterns and alternative splicing.
    • Outcome: Adaptation to different ecological niches within Lake Masoko, leading to reproductive isolation and speciation​ (Oxford Academic)​.

12. Sunflower Speciation (Helianthus annuus and Helianthus petiolaris):

    • Mechanism: Alternative splicing.
    • Outcome: Splicing differences contributing to adaptation and ecological divergence, promoting reproductive isolation and speciation​ (Oxford Academic)​.

13. Head and Body Lice (Pediculus humanus):

    • Mechanism: Significant differences in gene expression due to alternative splicing.
    • Outcome: Adaptation to distinct environments and hosts, leading to ecological speciation​ (Oxford Academic)​.

14. House Mice (Mus musculus domesticus):

    • Mechanism: Alternative splicing and differential gene expression.
    • Outcome: Rapid adaptation to different environments, contributing to the divergence of populations and speciation​ (Oxford Academic)​.

Why Epigenetic Modifications Don't Lead to Evolution

Despite their profound impact on phenotypic variability and speciation, epigenetic modifications differ from genetic mutations in that they are reversible and dynamic. While genetic mutations are permanent changes in the DNA sequence, epigenetic marks can be added or removed in response to environmental cues. This flexibility allows organisms to rapidly adapt to changing conditions without committing to irreversible genetic changes. This transient nature means that epigenetic changes never lead to assumed evolution. Instead, epigenetic regulation results in inevitable genetic entropy.

Conclusion

Epigenetic mechanisms play a crucial role in driving rapid speciation by enabling organisms to quickly adapt to environmental changes through reversible modifications in gene expression. These processes, including DNA methylation, histone modification, alternative splicing, and RNA editing, create phenotypic diversity that can lead to reproductive isolation and the emergence of new species. However, the dynamic and reversible nature of these changes distinguishes them from genetic mutations, highlighting their unique role in speciation without contributing to long-term evolution.

Sources

1. Heliconius Butterflies: Frontiers in Ecology​ (Frontiers)​, Genetics​ (Oxford Academic)​
2. Lycaenid Butterflies: Color-pattern Evolution in Response to Environmental Stress in Butterflies​ (Frontiers)​
3. Pea Aphids: BioScience​ (Oxford Academic)​
4. Bumblebees: Genetics​ (Oxford Academic)​
5. Drosophila: BioScience​ (Oxford Academic)​
6. Lake Whitefish: Coregonus clupeaformis Epigenetic Speciation​ (Oxford Academic)​
7. Black Poplar: Epigenetic Variation in Tree Evolution: a case study in black poplar (Populus nigra)​ (Christophe Ambroise)​
8. House Sparrows: Frontiers in Ecology​ (SpringerLink)​​ (Oxford Academic)​
9. Polyploid Plants: BioScience​ (Oxford Academic)​​ (SpringerLink)​
10. Darwin's Finches: Frontiers in Ecology​ (SpringerLink)​
11. Cichlid Fish: BioScience​ (Oxford Academic)​
12. Sunflower Speciation: Genetics​ (Oxford Academic)​
13. Head and Body Lice: Genetics​ (Oxford Academic)​
14. House Mice: [BioScience](https://academic.oup.com